Enzyme catalysis
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Enzyme catalysis is the catalysis of chemical reactions by specialised proteins, enzymes. Catalysis of biochemical reactions in the cell is vital due to the very low reaction rates of the uncatalysed reactions.
The mechanism of enzyme catalysis is similar in principle to other types of chemical catalysis. By providing an alternative reaction route and by stabilising intermediates the enzyme reduces the energy required to reach the highest energy transition state of the reaction. The reduction of activation energy (ΔG) increases the number of reactant molecules with enough energy to reach the activation energy and form the product.
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[edit] Induced fit
The favored model for the enzyme-substrate interaction is the induced fit model.[1] This model proposes that the initial interaction between enzyme and substrate is relatively weak, but that these weak interactions rapidly induce conformational changes in the enzyme that strengthen binding.
[edit] Catalysis by induced fit
The advantages of the induced fit mechanism arise due to the stabilising effect of strong enzyme binding. There are two different mechanisms of substrate binding; uniform binding which has strong substrate binding, and differential binding which has strong transition state binding. The stabilising effect of uniform binding increases both substrate and transition state binding affinity and differential binding increases only transition state binding affinity. Both are used by enzymes and have been evolutionarily chosen to minimise the ΔG of the reaction. Enzymes which are saturated, ie. have a high affinity substrate binding, require differential binding to reduce the ΔG, whereas largely substrate unbound enzymes may use either differential or uniform binding.
These effects have lead to most proteins using the differential binding mechanism to reduce the ΔG, so most proteins have high affinity of the enzyme to the transition state. Differential binding is carried out by the induced fit mechanism - the substrate first binds weakly, then the enzyme changes conformation increasing the affinity to the transition state and stabilising it, so reducing the activation energy to reach it.
[edit] Mechanisms of transition state stabilization
These conformational changes also bring catalytic residues in the active site close to the chemical bonds in the substrate that will be altered in the reaction. After binding takes place, one or more mechanisms of catalysis lowers the energy of the reaction's transition state, by providing an alternative chemical pathway for the reaction. There are six possible mechanisms of "over the barrier" catalysis as well as a "through the barrier" mechanism:
[edit] Catalysis by bond strain
This is the principle effect of induced fit binding, where the affinity of the enzyme to the transition state is greater than to the substrate itself. This induces structural rearrangements which strain substrate bonds into a position closer to the conformation of the transition state, so lowering the energy difference between the substrate and transition state and helping catalyze the reaction.
In addition to bond strain in the substrate, bond strain may also be induced within the enzyme itself to activate residues in the active site.
| For example: |
| Substrate, bound substrate, and transition state conformations of lysozyme. |
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| The substrate, on binding, is distorted from the typical 'chair' hexose ring into the 'sofa' conformation, which is similar in shape to the transition state. |
[edit] Catalysis by proximity and orientation
This increases the rate of the reaction as enzyme-substrate interactions align reactive chemical groups and hold them close together. This reduces the entropy of the reactants and thus makes reactions such as ligations or addition reactions more favourable, there is a reduction in the overall loss of entropy when two reactants become a single product.
This effect is analogous to an effective increase in concentration of the reagents. The binding of the reagents to the enzyme gives the reaction intramolecular character, which gives a massive rate increase.
| For example: |
| Similar reactions will occur far faster if the reaction is intramolecular. |
 |
| The effective concentration of acetate in the intramolecular reaction can be estimated as k2/k1 = 2 x 105 Molar. |
[edit] Catalysis Involving Proton donors or acceptors
- See also: Protein pKa calculations
Proton donors and acceptors, i.e. acids and bases, may donate and accept protons in order to stabilise developing charges in the transition state. This typically has the effect of activating nucleophile and electrophile groups, or stabilising leaving groups. Histidine is often the residue involved in these acid/base reactions, since it has a pKa close to neutral pH and can therefore both accept and donate protons.
Many reaction mechanisms involving acid/base catalysis assume a substantially altered pKa. This alteration of pKa is possible through the local environment of the residue.
| Conditions | Acids | Bases |
|---|---|---|
| Hydrophobic environment | Increase pKa | Decrease pKa |
| Adjacent residues of like charge | Increase pKa | Decrease pKa |
| Salt bridge (and hydrogen bond) formation |
Decrease pKa | Increase pKa |
The pKa is can be modified significantly by the environment, to the extent that residues which are basic in solution may act as proton donors, and vice versa.
| For example: |
| Serine protease catylitic mechanism |
 |
| The initial step of the serine protease catylitic mechanism involves the histidine of the active site accepting a proton from the serine residue. This prepares the serine as a nucleophile to attack the amide bond of the substrate. This mechanism includes donation of a proton from serine (a base, pKa 14) to histidine (an acid, pKa 6), made possible due to the local environment of the bases. |
[edit] Electrostatic catalysis
Stabilisation of charged transtion states can also be by residues in the active site forming ionic bonds (or partial ionic charge interactions) with the intermediate. These bonds can either come from acidic or basic side chains found on amino acids such as lysine, arginine, aspartic acid or glutamic acid or come from metal cofactors such as zinc. Metal ions are particularly effective and can reduce the pKa of water enough to make it an effective nuceophile.
The ionic stabilisation by the active site is more effective than in a polar solvent, such as water. This is due to the optimised and fixed locations of the charge donors in relation to the substrate.
| For example: |
| Carboxypeptidase catylitic mechanism |
 |
| The tetrahedral intermediate is stabilised by a partial ionic bond between the Zn2+ ion and the negative charge on the oxygen. |
[edit] Covalent Catalysis
Covalent catalysis involves the substrate forming a transient covalent bond with residues in the active site. This adds an additional covalent intermediate to the reaction, and helps to reduce the energy of later transition states of the reaction. The covalent bond must, at a later stage in the reaction, be broken to regenerate the enzyme. This mechanism is found in enzymes such as proteases like chymotrypsin and trypsin, where an acyl-enzyme intermediate is formed.
[edit] Quantum Tunneling
These traditional "over the barrier" mechanisms have been challenged in some cases by models and observations of "through the barrier" mechanisms (quantum tunneling). Some enzymes operate with kinetics which are faster than diffusion rates, which is impossible according to traditional models. In "through the barrier" models, a proton or an electron can tunnel through activation barriers. [2][3] Quantum tunneling for protons has been observed in tryptamine oxidation by aromatic amine dehydrogenase.[4]
[edit] Examples of catalytic mechanisms
In reality, most enzyme mechanisms involve a combination of several different types of catalysis.
[edit] Triose phosphate isomerase
Triose phosphate isomerase (EC 5.3.1.1) catalyses the reversible interconvertion of the two triose phosphates isomers dihydroxyacetone phosphate and D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
[edit] Trypsin
Trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4) is a serine proteases that cleaves protein substrates at lysine and arginine amino acid residues.
[edit] Aldolase
Aldolase (EC 4.1.2.13) catalyses the breakdown of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-BP) into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP).
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- Alan Fersht, Structure and Mechanism in Protein Science : A Guide to Enzyme Catalysis and Protein Folding. W. H. Freeman, 1998. ISBN 0-7167-3268-8
- ^ Koshland DE (Feb 1958). "Application of a Theory of Enzyme Specificity to Protein Synthesis.". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 44 (2): 98-104. PMID 16590179.
- ^ Garcia-Viloca M, Gao J, Karplus M, Truhlar DG. How enzymes work: analysis by modern rate theory and computer simulations. Science. 2004 Jan 9;303(5655):186-95. PMID 14716003
- ^ Olsson MH, Siegbahn PE, Warshel A. Simulations of the large kinetic isotope effect and the temperature dependence of the hydrogen atom transfer in lipoxygenase. J Am Chem Soc. 2004 Mar 10;126(9):2820-8. PMID 14995199
- ^ Masgrau L, Roujeinikova A, Johannissen LO, Hothi P, Basran J, Ranaghan KE, Mulholland AJ, Sutcliffe MJ, Scrutton NS, Leys D. Atomic Description of an Enzyme Reaction Dominated by Proton Tunneling. Science. 2006 Apr 14;312(5771):237-41. PMID 16614214
