Empire of China (1915-1916)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Empire of China (Traditional Chinese: 中華帝國; Simplified Chinese: 中华帝国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Dìguó) was a short-lived attempt by statesman and general Yuan Shikai from late 1915 to early 1916 to reinstate monarchy in China. The attempt was ultimately a failure, but it set back the Republican cause by many years and fractured China into a hodgepodge of squabbling warlord factions.
Contents |
[edit] Preparations for formation
After Yuan Shikai was installed as the second Provisional Great President of the Republic of China, he took various steps to consolidate his power and remove opposition leaders from office. To secure his own power he collaborated with various European powers as well as Japan. Around August 1915, he instructed Yang Du (楊度) et al to canvass support for a return of a monarchy. On 11 December 1915, a rubber-stamp assembly unaminously elected him as Emperor. Yuan ceremonially declined, but "relented" and immediately agreed when the National Assembly petitioned again that day.[2] On 12 December, Yuan, supported by his son Yuan Keding, declared the Empire of China, becoming the Great Emperor of China (中華帝國大皇帝), taking the era name Hongxian (洪憲). However, Yuan did not formally conduct the ascession rites. Soon after, Yuan started handing out titles of peerage to his closest relatives and friends, as well as those who he thought he could buy with titles.
The Aisin Gioro family, then living within the Forbidden Palace but as foreign monarchs rather than Chinese ones, "approved" of Yuan's accession, and even proposed a "royal marriage" of Yuan's daughter to Puyi.
[edit] Backlash
1916 was to be Hongxian Year 1 (洪憲元年) rather than Republic Year 5 (民國五年)[2], but Yuan was opposed by not only the revolutionaries, but far more importantly by his subordinate military commanders, who believed that Yuan's assumption of the monarchy would allow him to rule without depending on the support of the military. Province after province rebelled after his inauguration, starting with Yunnan, led by Yuan's governor Cai E and general Tang Jiyao (唐繼堯) and Jiangxi, led by governor Li Liejun (李烈鈞). The revolters formed the National Protection Army (護國軍) and thus began the National Protection War (護國戰爭). This was followed by other provinces declaring independence from the Empire. Yuan's Beiyang generals, whose soldiers had not received pay once from the imperial government, did not put up an aggressive campaign against the National Protection Army and the Beiyang Army suffered numerous defeats despite being better trained and equipped than the National Protection Army. Seeing Yuan's weakness and unpopularity, foreign powers withdrew their support (but did not choose sides in the war). Japan first threatened to invade, then committed to overthrowing Yuan Shikai and recognised both sides of the conflict to be "in a state of war" and allowed Japanese citizens to help the Republicans.[2] Faced with universal opposition, Yuan repeatedly delayed the accession rites to appease his foes. Funding for the ceremony was cut on 1 March. Yuan deliberated abandoning the monarchy with Liang Shiyi (梁士詒) on 17 March and abandoned it on 22 March. The "Hongxian" year was abolished on 23 March and the "Republic" calendrical system restored. Yuan reigned a total of 83 days.[2]
After Yuan's death on 5 June Vice President Li Yuanhong assumed presidency, appointed Beiyang general Duan Qirui as his Premier and restored the National Assembly and the provisional Constitution. However, the central authority of the Beijing government was significantly weakened and the demise of Yuan's Empire plunged China into a period of warlordism.
[edit] List of people given peerage by Yuan
- Prince of the First Rank Wuyi (武義親王) - Li Yuanhong (黎元洪)
- Dukes of the First Rank (一等公) - Long Jiguang (龍濟光), Zhang Xun (張勳), Feng Guozhang (馮國璋), Jiang Guiti (姜桂題), Duan Zhigui (段芝貴), Ni Sichong (倪嗣衝)
- Marquesses of the First Rank (一等侯) - Tang Xiangming (湯薌銘), Li Chun (李純), Zhu Rui (朱瑞), Lu Rongting (陸榮廷), Zhao Ti (趙倜), Chen Yi (陳宧), Tang Jiyao (唐繼堯), Yan Xishan (閻錫山), Wang Zhanyuan (王占元)
- Counts of the First Rank (一等伯) - Zhang Xiluan (張錫鑾), Zhu Jiabao (朱家寶), Zhang Mingqi (張鳴岐), Wen Tianlie (田文烈), Jin Yunpeng (靳雲鵬), Yang Tianxin (楊增新), Lu Jianzhang (陸建章), Meng Enyuan (孟恩遠), Qu Yinguang (屈映光), Qi Yaolin (齊耀琳), Cao Kun (曹錕), Yang Shande (楊善德)
- Viscounts of the First Rank (一等子) - Zhu Qinglan (朱慶瀾), Zhang Guangjian (張廣建), Li Houji (李厚基), Liu Xianshi (劉顯世)
- Barons of the First Rank (一等男) - Xu Shiying (許世英), Qi Yang (戚揚), Ren Kecheng (任可澄), Wang Yitang (王揖唐), He Zonglian (何宗蓮), Zhang Huaizhi (張懷芝), Long Jinuang (龍覲光), Chen Bingkun (陳炳焜), Lu Yongxiang (盧永祥), Lü Diaoyuan (呂調元), Jin Yong (金永), Cai Rukai (蔡儒楷), Duan Shuyun (段書雲), Long Jianzhang (龍建章), Shen Jinjian (沈金鑑), Pan Juying (潘矩楹)
- Baron of the Third Rank (三等男) - Feng Yuxiang (馮玉祥)
[edit] National symbols
Although the name of the country in Chinese was changed to the "Empire of China" (and "Hongxian" for state matters), Yuan continued to use "Republic of China" as the English name.[2]
Yuan set up the Ritual Regulations Office (禮制館), which issued the new official anthem "China heroically stands in the Universe" (中國雄立宇宙間) on June 1915. Its lyrics was written by Yin Chang (廕昌) and music by Wang Lu (王露). This anthem continued to be used during Yuan's imperial reign.
| Chinese lyrics | English translation |
|---|---|
| 中國雄立宇宙間﹐ 廓八埏﹐ |
China heroically stands in Universe, Extends to the Eight Corners, |
The national flag was changed from the original 5-stripe flag to one (with the symmetrical cross, pictured above) that emphasised Han (red) administration over the Manchu, Mongolian, Uighur and Tibetan minorities of the country. However, the flag with a saltire was the version commonly used.
