Edward Said

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Edward Said
Born November 1, 1935
Jerusalem
Died September 25, 2003
New York City
Occupation Academic

Edward Wadie Said (1 November 1935, Jerusalem – 25 September 2003, New York City; Arabic: إدوارد سعيد‎) was a well-known Palestinian-American literary theorist and outspoken Palestinian activist. He was Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University, and is regarded as a founding figure in post-colonial theory. [1]

Contents

[edit] Life

Said was born in Jerusalem (then in the British Mandate of Palestine) on November 1, 1935. His father was a wealthy Christian Palestinian businessman and an American citizen, while his mother was born in Nazareth of Christian Lebanese and Palestinian descent.[2] His sister was the historian and writer Rosemarie Said Zahlan. According to Said's autobiographical memoir, Out of Place (excerpted in London Review of Books article "Between Worlds"), Said lived "between worlds" in both Cairo and Jerusalem until the age of 12. In 1947, he attended the Anglican St. George's Academy when he was in Jerusalem, but his extended family became (in his word) "refugees" in 1948 during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War when his family home in Talbiya was annexed, along with the western part of Jerusalem, by Israel:

   
“
 I was born in Jerusalem and had spent most of my formative years there and, after 1948, when my entire family became refugees, in Egypt. All my early education had, however, been in élite colonial schools, English public schools designed by the British to bring up a generation of Arabs with natural ties to Britain. The last one I went to before I left the Middle East to go to the United States was Victoria College in Cairo, a school in effect created to educate those ruling-class Arabs and Levantines who were going to take over after the British left. My contemporaries and classmates included King Hussein of Jordan, several Jordanian, Egyptian, Syrian and Saudi boys who were to become ministers, prime ministers and leading businessmen, as well as such glamorous figures as Michel Shalhoub, head prefect of the school and chief tormentor when I was a relatively junior boy, whom everyone has seen on screen as Omar Sharif.[3]
   
”

In "early September 1951", when he was fifteen years old, his parents (who immediately returned to the Middle East) placed him in the Mount Hermon School, a private preparatory high school, in Massachusetts, where he recalls a "miserable year" feeling "out of place" ("Between Worlds").

Said earned a B.A. from Princeton University and an M.A. and a Ph.D. from Harvard University, where he won the Bowdoin Prize. He joined the faculty of Columbia University in 1963 and served as a professor of English and Comparative Literature for several decades. In 1977 Said became the Parr Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia and subsequently became the Old Dominion Foundation Professor in the Humanities. In 1992 he attained the rank of University Professor, Columbia's most prestigious academic position. Professor Said also taught at Harvard, Johns Hopkins, and Yale universities. He was fluent in Arabic, English and French. In 1999, after his earlier election to second vice president and following its succession policy, Said served as president of the Modern Language Association.

Said was bestowed with numerous honorary doctorates from universities around the world and twice received Columbia's Trilling Award and the Wellek Prize of the American Comparative Literature Association. His autobiographical memoir Out of Place won the 1999 New Yorker Prize for non-fiction. He was also a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the Royal Society of Literature, and the American Philosophical Society.[4]

Said's writing regularly appeared in The Nation, The Guardian, the London Review of Books, Le Monde Diplomatique, Counterpunch, Al Ahram, and the pan-Arab daily al-Hayat. He gave interviews alongside his good friend, fellow political activist, and colleague Noam Chomsky regarding U.S. foreign policy for various independent radio programs.

Said also contributed music criticism to The Nation for many years. In 1999, he jointly founded the West-East Divan Orchestra with the Argentine-Israeli conductor and close friend Daniel Barenboim.

In January 2006, anthropologist David Price obtained 147 pages of Said's 238-page FBI file through a Freedom of Information Act request. The records reveal that Said was under surveillance starting in 1971. Most of his records are marked as related to "IS Middle East" ("IS" = Israel) and significant portions remain "Classified Secrets."[5]

Edward Said died at the age of 67 in the early morning of September 25, 2003, in New York City, after a decade-long battle with chronic myelogenous leukemia.[6]

In November 2004, Birzeit University renamed its music school as the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music in his honor.[7]

[edit] Orientalism

Said is best known for describing and critiquing "Orientalism", which he perceived as a constellation of false assumptions underlying Western attitudes toward the East. In Orientalism (1978), Said described the "subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo-Islamic peoples and their culture."[8] He argued that a long tradition of false and romanticized images of Asia and the Middle East in Western culture had served as an implicit justification for Europe and America's colonial and imperial ambitions. Just as fiercely, he denounced the practice of Arab elites who internalized the American and British orientalists' ideas of Arabic culture.

In 1980 Said criticized what he regarded as poor understanding of the Arab culture in the West:

   
“
 So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems and Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers or potential terrorists. Very little of the detail, the human density, the passion of Arab-Moslem life has entered the awareness of even those people whose profession it is to report the Arab world. What we have instead is a series of crude, essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to military aggression.[9]
   
”

[edit] The argument

Orientalism has had a significant impact on the fields of literary theory, cultural studies and human geography, and to a lesser extent on those of History and Oriental Studies. Taking his cue from the work of Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault (acknowledging the influence of the latter, but not the former[10]), and from earlier critics of western Orientalism such as A. L. Tibawi[11], Anouar Malek-Abdel[12], Maxime Rodinson[13], and Richard William Southern[14], Said argued that Western writings on the Orient, and the perceptions of the East purveyed in them, are suspect, and cannot be taken at face value. According to Said, the history of European colonial rule and political domination over the East distorts the writings of even the most knowledgeable, well-meaning and sympathetic Western ‘Orientalists’ (a term which he transformed into a pejorative):

   
“
 I doubt if it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India or Egypt in the later nineteenth century took an interest in those countries which was never far from their status in his mind as British colonies. To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic knowledge about India and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with, violated by, the gross political fact – and yet that is what I am saying in this study of Orientalism. (Said, Orientalism 11)
   
”

Said contended that Europe had dominated Asia politically so completely for so long, that even the most outwardly objective Western texts on the East were permeated with a bias which even most Western scholars could not recognise. His contention was that the West has not only conquered the East politically, but that Western scholars have appropriated the exploration and interpretation of the Orient’s languages, history and culture for themselves. They have written Asia’s past and constructed its modern identities from a perspective which takes Europe as the norm, from which the "exotic", "inscrutable" Orient deviates.

Said concludes that Western writings about the Orient depict it as an irrational, weak, feminised "Other", contrasted with the rational, strong, masculine West, a contrast he suggests derives from the need to create "difference" between West and East which can be attributed to immutable "essences" in the Oriental make-up. In 1978, when the book was first published, with memories of the Yom Kippur war and the OPEC crisis still fresh, Said argued that these attitudes still permeated the Western media and academia. After stating the central thesis, Orientalism consists mainly of examples from Western texts designed to illustrate it.

[edit] Criticism

Said’s book attracted both adulation and criticism from the outset.

Ernest Gellner[15] argued that Said's contention that the West had dominated the East for over 2,000 years (since the composition of Aeschylus’s The Persians) was unsupportable, noting that until the late 17th century the Ottoman Empire had posed a serious threat to Europe. Others pointed out that even at the height of the Imperial Era, European power in the East was never absolute, and remained heavily dependent on local collaborators and local forms of knowledge, which were frequently subversive of Imperial aims.[16]

Meanwhile, others argued that the areas of the Middle East on which Said had concentrated, including Palestine and Egypt, were poor examples for his theory, as they came under European control only for a relatively short period in the late 19th and early twentieth centuries. These critics suggested that Said devoted much less attention to more apt examples, including the British Raj in India, and Russia’s dominions in Asia, because Said was more interested in making political points about the Middle East.[17]

Strong criticism of Said's critique of "Orientalism" has come from academic Orientalists, some of whom were of Eastern backgrounds themselves. Albert Hourani, Robert Graham Irwin, Nikki Keddie, Bernard Lewis, and Kanan Makiya, address what Keddie retrospectively calls "some unfortunate consequences" of Said's Orientalism on the perception and status of their scholarship.[18] Bernard Lewis is among scholars whose work Said questioned in Orientalism and subsequent works. The two authors came frequently to exchange disagreement, starting in the pages of the New York Review of Books following the publication of Orientalism. Lewis's article "The Question of Orientalism" was followed in the next issue by "Orientalism: An Exchange." Other scholars, such as Maxime Rodinson, Jacques Berque, Malcolm Kerr, Aijaz Ahmad, and William Montgomery Watt also regarded Orientalism as a deeply flawed account of Western scholarship.[19]

Some of Said's academic critics argue that Said made no attempt to distinguish between the writings of poets such as Goethe (who never even travelled in the East), novelists such as Flaubert (who undertook a brief sojourn in Egypt), discredited mavericks such as Ernest Renan, and serious scholars such as Edward William Lane who were fluent in Arabic and produced work of considerable value: their common European origins and attitudes, according to Said, overrode such considerations.[20] Irwin (among others) points out that Said entirely ignored the fact that Oriental studies in the 19th century were dominated by Germans and Hungarians, from countries which, inconveniently for Said's purposes, did not possess an Eastern Empire.[21] Such critics accuse Said of creating a monolithic ‘Occidentalism’ to oppose to the ‘Orientalism’ of Western discourse, arguing that he failed to distinguish between the paradigms of Romanticism and the Enlightenment, that he ignored the widespread and fundamental differences of opinion amongst western scholars of the Orient; that he failed to acknowledge that many Orientalists (such as Sir William Jones) were more concerned with establishing kinship between East and West than with creating "difference", and had frequently made discoveries which would provide the foundations for anti-colonial nationalism.[22] More generally, critics argue that Said and his followers fail to distinguish between Orientalism in the media and popular culture (for instance the portrayal of the Orient in films such as Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom) and academic studies of Oriental languages, literature, history and culture by Western scholars (whom, it is argued, they tar with the same brush).[23]

Finally, Said's critics argue that by making ethnicity and cultural background the test of authority and objectivity in studying the Orient, Said drew attention to the question of his own identity as a Palestinian, and as a "Subaltern." Ironically, given Said's largely Anglophone upbringing and education at an elite school in Cairo, the fact that he spent most of his adult life in the United States, and his prominent position in American academia, his own arguments that "any and all representations… are embedded first in the language and then in the culture, institutions and political ambience of the representer . . . [and are] interwoven with a great many other things besides the 'truth', which is itself a representation" (Orientalism 272) could be said to disenfranchise him from writing about the Orient himself. Thus these critics claim that the excessive relativism of Said and his followers trap them in a "web of solipsism"[24], unable to talk of anything but "representations", and denying the existence of any objective truth.

Towards the end of his life Said himself adopted a critical view of the postcolonial theory that his work had founded.[25]

[edit] Supporters of Said and his influence

Said’s supporters argue that such criticisms, even if correct, do not invalidate his basic thesis, which they say still holds true for the 19th and 20th centuries and in particular for general representations of the Orient in Western media, literature and film.[26] His supporters point out that Said himself acknowledges limitations of his study's failing to address German scholarship (Orientalism 18-19) and that, in the "Afterword" to the 1995 edition of Orientalism, he, in their view, convincingly refutes his critics such as Lewis (329-54).

Said's continuing importance in the fields of literary criticism and cultural studies is represented by his influence on scholars studying India, such as Gyan Prakash[27], Nicholas Dirks[28], and Ronald Inden[29], and literary theorists such as Homi Bhabha[30] and Gayatri Spivak.[31]

Prominent leftist intellectuals such as journalist Alexander Cockburn and academic Mohamed Rabie have also been close friends with Said.

Both supporters of Edward Said and his critics acknowledge the profound, transformative influence which his book Orientalism has had across the spectrum of the Humanities; but whereas his critics regret his influence as limiting, his supporters praise his influence as liberating.[citation needed]

[edit] Attacks on Said

Although widely respected, Said was often attacked for his political views, relating especially to his strong support for the Palestinian people. In the 1980's, Said's office was burned down by a group of pro-Israeli extremists. In 1999, Said became a source of controversy when a pundit from the pro-Israeli Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs launched a campaign questioning Said's Jerusalimite origins and his family's ownership of a house there, garnering substantial public attention.

Several respondents came to Said's defense, characterizing the accusations as political and manufactured. Said himself responded in an article entitled "Defamation, Zionist-style" published in Al-Ahram Weekly. In a later editorial, Said claimed that the "Zionist movement has resorted to shabbier and shabbier techniques," saying the Jerusalem Center had "hired an obscure Israeli-American lawyer to 'research' the first ten years of my life and 'prove' that even though I was born in Jerusalem I was never really there".[32] In a 2000 interview with Amritjit Singh, Said is quoted as saying: "I was born in Jerusalem, my family is a Jerusalem family. We left Palestine in 1947. We left before most others. It was a fortuitous thing. . . . I never said I was a refugee, but the rest of my family was. My entire extended family was driven out. . . ."[33]

[edit] Pro-Palestinian activism

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As a pro-Palestinian activist, Said campaigned first for a creation of an independent Palestinian state and later for a single Jewish-Arab state.[citations needed] From 1977 until 1991, Said was an independent member of the Palestinian National Council who tended to stay out of factional struggles.[34] He supported the two-state solution and voted for it in Algiers in 1988. In 1991, he quit the PNC in protest over the process leading up to the signing of the Oslo Accords, feeling that the Oslo terms were unacceptable and had been rejected by the Madrid round negotiators. He felt that Oslo would not lead to a truly independent state and was inferior to a plan Arafat had rejected when Said himself presented it to Arafat on behalf of the US government in the late 70's. In particular, he wrote that Arafat had sold short the right of Palestinian refugees to return to their homes in pre-1967 Israel and ignored the growing presence of Israeli settlements. Said's relationship with the Palestinian Authority was once so bad that PA leaders banned the sale of his books in August 1995, but improved when he hailed Arafat for rejecting Barak's offers at the Camp David 2000 Summit. Ultimately, Said came to prefer and to support the binational solution—the creation of one state in the entirety of the West Bank, Gaza Strip and pre-1967 Israel, in which Arabs and Jews would have equal rights, over a two state solution with a Palestinian state on the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem.[citations needed]

On July 3, 2000, Said was videotaped lobbing a symbolic rock towards an Israeli watchtower on the Israeli-Lebanese border. "One stone tossed into an empty space scarcely warrants a second thought", he later said, responding to criticism that he had aimed the rock at people less than 30 feet away.[35] In June 2002, Said, along with Haidar Abdel-Shafi, Ibrahim Dakak, and Mustafa Barghouti, helped establish the Palestinian National Initiative, or Al-Mubadara, an attempt to build a third force in Palestinian politics, a democratic, reformist alternative to both the established Palestinian Authority and to Islamist militant groups such as Hamas.

In Al-Ahram Weekly, in April 2002, Said observes:

   
“
 Above all we must, as Mandela never tired of saying about his struggle, be aware that Palestine is one of the great moral causes of our time. Therefore, we need to treat it as such. It's not a matter of trade, or bartering negotiations, or making a career. It is a just cause which should allow Palestinians to capture the high moral ground and keep it.[36]
   
”

In August 2003, in an article published online in Counterpunch, Said summarizes his position on the contemporary rights of Palestinians vis-à-vis the historical experience of the Jewish people:

   
“
 I have spent a great deal of my life during the past 35 years advocating the rights of the Palestinian people to national self-determination, but I have always tried to do that with full attention paid to the reality of the Jewish people and what they suffered by way of persecution and genocide. The paramount thing is that the struggle for equality in Palestine/Israel should be directed toward a humane goal, that is, co-existence, and not further suppression and denial.[37]
   
”

Said's books on the issue of Israel and Palestine include The Question of Palestine (1979), The Politics of Dispossession (1994) and The End Of The Peace Process (2000).

[edit] Publications

  • Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (1966)
  • Beginnings: Intention and Method(1975)
  • Orientalism (1978)
  • The Question of Palestine (1979)
  • Orientalisme (1980)
  • Literature and Society (editor) (1980)
  • The Middle East: What Chances For Peace? (1980) [co-contributor with Joseph J. Sisco, Shlomo Avineri, Saburo Okita, Udo Steinbach, William Scranton, Abdel Hamid Abdel-Ghani and H.R.H. Prince Saud]
  • Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (1981)
  • The World, the Text and the Critic (1983)
  • After the Last Sky: Palestinian Lives (1986) [with photographs by Jean Mohr]
  • Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question (1988) [contributor and co-editor with Christopher Hitchens]
  • Yeats and Decolonization (1988)
  • Musical Elaborations (1991)
  • Culture and Imperialism (1993)
  • The Politics of Dispossession (1994)
  • Representations of the Intellectual: The Reith Lectures (1994)
  • The Pen and the Sword: Conversations with Edward W. Said (1994) [Conversations with David Barsamian]
  • Peace and Its Discontents: Essays on Palestine in the Middle East Peace Process (1996)
  • Entre guerre at paix (1997)
  • Acts of Aggression: Policing "Rogue States" (with Noam Chomsky and Ramsey Clark)(1999)
  • Out of Place (1999) (a memoir)
  • Henry James: Complete Stories, 1884-1891 (Editor) (1999)
  • The End of the Peace Process: Oslo and After (2000)
  • Reflections on Exile (2000)
  • The Edward Said Reader (2000)
  • Power, Politics and Culture: Interviews with Edward W. Said (2001)
  • CIA et Jihad, 1950-2001: Contre l'URSS, une désastreuse alliance (2002), with John K. Cooley
  • Culture and Resistance: Conversations with Edward W. Said (2003) [Interviews by David Barsamian]
  • From Oslo to Iraq and the Road Map (Collection of Essays) (2003)
  • Humanism and Democratic Criticism (2005)
  • On Late Style: Music and Literature Against the Grain (will be published posthumously April 2006)
  • Criticism in Society (year of publication unknown)
  • Edward Said: A Critical Reader (year of publication unknown)
  • Freud and the Non-European (year of publication unknown)
  • Jewish Religion, Jewish History (Introduction) (year of publication unknown)
  • Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature (year of publication unknown)
  • Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society (with Daniel Barenboim) (year of publication unknown)

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Robert Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (New York & London: Routledge, 1990). ISBN 0-415-05372-2.
  2. ^ Amritjit Singh, Interviews With Edward W. Said (Oxford: UP of Mississippi, 2004) 19 & 219. ISBN 1-57806-366-3.
  3. ^ Edward Said, "Between Worlds," London Review of Books May 7, 1998, accessed March 1, 2006.
  4. ^ [1]
  5. ^ David Price, "How the FBI Spied on Edward Said," CounterPunch January 13, 2006, accessed January 15, 2006.
  6. ^ See Columbia News mourns passing of Edward Said.
  7. ^ See Birzeit U.
  8. ^ Keith Windschuttle, "Edward Said's "Orientalism revisited," The New Criterion January 17, 1999, accessed January 19, [1999].
  9. ^ Edward W. Said, "Islam Through Western Eyes," The Nation April 26, 1980, first posted online January 1, 1998, accessed December 5, 2005.
  10. ^ Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Penguin, 1995) 3.
  11. ^ A. L. Tibawi, "English-speaking Orientalists: A Critique of Their Approach to Islam and Arab Nationalism", Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964): 25-45
  12. ^ Anouar Malek-Abdel, "L’orientalisme en crise", Diogène 44 (1963): 109-41
  13. ^ "Bilan des études mohammadiennes", Revue Historique 465.1 (1963)
  14. ^ Richard William Southern, Western views of Islam in the Middle Ages (1978; Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1962).
  15. ^ Ernest Gellner, "The Mightier Pen? Edward Said and the Double Standards of Inside-out Colonialism", rev. of Culture and Imperialism, by Edward Said, Times Literary Supplement February 19, 1993: 3-4.
  16. ^ C.A. Bayly Empire and Information (Delhi, India: Cambridge UP, 1999) 25, 143, 282.
  17. ^ Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies (London: Allen Lane, 2006) 159-60, 281-2.
  18. ^ Bernard Lewis, "The Question of Orientalism", in Islam and the West (London 1993) 99–118; Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies (2003; London: Allen Lane, 2006.
  19. ^ Aijaz Ahmad, In Theory: Classes, Natures, Literatures (London: Verso, 1992); Malcolm Kerr, rev. of Orientalism, by Edward Said, International Jour. of Middle Eastern Studies 12 (Dec. 1980): 544-47; and Martin Kramer, "Said’s Splash", Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Policy Papers 58 (Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001). ISBN 0-944029-49-3. Kramer observes in "Said's Splash" that "Fifteen years after publication of Orientalism, the UCLA historian Nikki Keddie (whose work Said had praised in Covering Islam) allowed that the book was 'important and in many ways positive.' But she also thought it had had 'unfortunate consequences'"; in an interview published in Approaches to the History of the Middle East, ed. Nancy Elizabeth Gallagher (London: Ithaca Press, 1994) 144-45, as cited & qtd. by Kramer, Keddie says:

    "I think that there has been a tendency in the Middle East field to adopt the word "orientalism" as a generalized swear-word essentially referring to people who take the "wrong" position on the Arab-Israeli dispute or to people who are judged too "conservative." It has nothing to do with whether they are good or not good in their disciplines. So "orientalism" for many people is a word that substitutes for thought and enables people to dismiss certain scholars and their works. I think that is too bad. It may not have been what Edward Said meant at all, but the term has become a kind of slogan."

  20. ^ Said, Orientalism 87–88, 336; Ibn Warraq, Debunking Edward Said.
  21. ^ Irwin, For Lust of Knowing 8, 150–166.
  22. ^ O.P. Kejariwal, The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India’s Past (Delhi: Oxford UP, 1988) ix-xi, 221-233.
  23. ^ Said, "Afterword" to the 1995 ed. of Orientalism 347, as cited by Irwin, For Lust of Knowing 3–8; cf. Kaizaad Navroze Kotwal, "Steven Spielberg's Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom as Virtual Reality: The Orientalist and Colonial Legacies of Gunga Din," The Film Journal no. 12 (April 2005).
  24. ^ D.A. Washbrook, "Orients and Occidents: Colonial Discourse Theory and the Historiography of the British Empire", in Historiography, vol. 5 of The Oxford History of the British Empire 607.
  25. ^ Terry Eagleton, "In the Gaudy Supermarket" (Review of A Critique of Post-Colonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak), London Review of Books. [2]
  26. ^ See Terry Eagleton, Rev. of For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies, by Robert Irwin (London: Penguin, 2003). ISBN 0-7139-9415-0. New Statesman Bookshop November 1, 2003.
  27. ^ Gyan Prakash, “Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 32.2 (1990): 383-408.
  28. ^ Nicholas Dirks, Castes of Mind (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001).
  29. ^ Ronald Inden, Imagining India (New York: Oxford UP, 1990).
  30. ^ Homi K. Bhaba, Nation and Narration (New York & London: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1990).
  31. ^ Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (London: Methuen, 1987).
  32. ^ Edward Said, "Freud, Zionism, and Vienna" Al-Ahram Weekly March 15-21 2001, accessed October 31, 2006.
  33. ^ Amritjit Singh, Interviews with Edward W. Said (Oxford: UP of Mississippi, 2004) 19 & 219. ISBN 1-57806-366-3.
  34. ^ Malise Ruthven, "Edward Said: Controversial Literary Critic and Bold Advocate of the Palestinian Cause in America," The Guardian September 26, 2003, accessed March 1, 2006.
  35. ^ Sunnie Kim, "Edward Said Accused of Stoning in South Lebanon," Columbia Daily Spectator July 19, 2000, News.
  36. ^ Rpt. in Edward Said, "Thinking Ahead", Media Monitors April 1, 2002, accessed August 26, 2006.
  37. ^ Edward Said, "Worldly Humanism v. the Empire-builders," CounterPunch August 4, 2003, accessed December 12, 2005.

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