Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is a list of different language classification proposals developed for indigenous languages of the Americas. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not always neatly correspond to these continent divisions.

(See: Indigenous languages of the Americas for the main article about these languages.)

Contents 1 North America 1.1 Gallatin (1836) 1.2 Gallatin (1848) 1.3 Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight" 1.4 Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica 1.5 Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964 1.6 Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book" 1.7 Greenberg (1987) 1.8 Goddard (1996), Campell (1997), Mithun (1999) 2 Mesoamerica 3 South America 3.1 Kaufman (1990) 3.1.1 Families & isolates 3.1.2 Stocks 3.1.3 Clusters & networks 4 Bibliography

[edit] North America

[edit] Gallatin (1836)

An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1926, 1936, and 1948. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and John Wesley Powell. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.)

(Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in italics.)

Families

1. Algonkin-Lenape  (=Algonquian)
2. Athapascas  (=Athabaskan)
3. Catawban  (=Catawba + Woccons)
4. Eskimaux  (=Eskimoan)
5. Iroquois  (=Northern Iroquoian)
6. Cherokees  (=Southern Iroquoian)
7. Muskogee  (=Eastern Muskogean)
8. Chahtas  (=Western Muskogean)
9. Sioux  (=Siouan)

Languages

Adaize  (=Adai) Attacapas  (=Atakapa) Salmon River  (=Bella Coola) Black Feet  (=Blackfoot) Pawnees  (=Northern Caddoan) Caddoes  (=Southern Caddoan) Chinooks  (=Chinookan) Chetimachas  (=Chitimacha) Fall Indians  (=Gros Ventre) Queen Charlotte's Island  (=Haida)

11. Straits of Fuca  (=Makah) 12. Natches  (=Natchez) 13. Wakash  (=Nootka) 14. Salish  (=Salishan) 15. Shoshonees  (=Shoshone) 16. Atnahs  (=Shuswap) 17. Kinai  (=Tanaina) 18. Koulischen  (=Tlingit) 19. Utchees  (=Yuchi)

[edit] Gallatin (1848)

Families

1. Algonquian languages
2. Athabaskan languages
3. Catawban languages
4. Eskimoan languages
5. Iroquoian languages (Northern)
6. Iroquoian languages (Southern)
7. Muskogean languages
8. Siouan languages

Languages

1. Adai   2. Alsean   3. Apache   4. Arapaho   5. Atakapa   6. Caddoan, Northern   7. Caddoan, Southern   8. Cayuse-Molala   9. Chinookan 10. Chitimacha 11. Comanche 12. Haida 13. Kalapuyan 14. Kiowa 15. Klamath 16. Koasati-Alabama 17. Kootenai

18. Kutchin 19. Maricopa (Yuman) 20. Natchez 21. Palaihnihan 22. Plains Apache 23. Sahaptian 24. Salishan 25. Shasta 26. Shoshone 27. Tanaina 28. Tlingit 29. Tsimshian 30. Ute 31. Wakashan, Southern 32. Wichita 33. Yuchi

[edit] Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

John Wesley Powell, an explorer employed by the Bureau of American Ethnology, published a classification of 58 "stocks" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent.

John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers.

(More current names are indicated parenthetically.)

1. Adaizan   2. Algonquian   3. Athapascan   4. Attacapan  (=Atakapa)   5. Beothukan  (=Beothuk)   6. Caddoan   7. Chimakuan   8. Chimarikan  (=Chimariko)   9. Chimmesyan  (=Tsimshian) 10. Chinookan 11. Chitimachan  (=Chitimacha) 12. Chumashan 13. Coahuiltecan 14. Copehan  (=Wintuan) 15. Costanoan 16. Eskimauan  (=Eskimoan) 17. Esselenian  (=Esselen) 18. Iroquoian 19. Kalapooian  (=Kalapuyan) 20. Karankawan  (=Karankawa)

21. Keresan 22. Kiowan  (=Kiowa) 23. Kitunahan  (=Kutenai) 24. Koluschan  (=Tlingit) 25. Kulanapan  (=Pomoan) 26. Kusan  (=Coosan) 27. Lutuamian  (=Klamath-Modoc) 28. Mariposan  (=Yokutsan) 29. Moquelumnan  (=Miwokan) 30. Muskhogean  (=Muskogean) 31. Natchesan  (=Natchez) 32. Palaihnihan 33. Piman  (=Uto-Azetcan) 34. Pujunan  (=Maiduan) 35. Quoratean  (=Karok) 36. Salinan 37. Salishan 38. Sastean  (=Shastan) 39. Shahaptian  (=Sahaptian)

40. Shoshonean  (=Uto-Azetcan) 41. Siouan  (=Siouan-Catawba) 42. Skittagetan  (=Haida) 43. Takilman  (=Takelma) 44. Tañoan  (=Tanoan) 45. Timuquanan  (=Timucua) 46. Tonikan  (=Tunica) 47. Tonkawan  (=Tonkawa) 48. Uchean  (=Yuchi) 49. Waiilatpuan  (=Cayuse & Molala) 50. Wakashan 51. Washoan  (=Washo) 52. Weitspekan  (=Yurok) 53. Wishoskan  (=Wiyot) 54. Yakonan  (=Siuslaw & Alsean) 55. Yanan 56. Yukian 57. Yuman 58. Zuñian  (=Zuni)

[edit] Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica

Below is Edward Sapir's (1929) famous Encyclopædia Britannica classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of a "lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo-Aleut, Algonkin-Wakashan, Nadene, Penutian, Hokan-Siouan, and Aztec-Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks in that appear Sapir's list below are present in the original article.)

"Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"

I. Eskimo-Aleut II. Algonkin-Wakashan 1. Algonkin-Ritwan (1) Algonkin (2) Beothuk (?) (3) Ritwan (a) Wiyot (b) Yurok 2. Kootenay 3. Mosan (Wakashan-Salish) (1) Wakashan (Kwakiutl-Nootka) (2) Chimakuan (3) Salish III. Nadene 1. Haida 2. Continental Nadene (1) Tlingit (2) Athabaskan IV. Penutian 1. Californian Penutian (1) Miwok-Costanoan (2) Yokuts (3) Maidu (4) Wintun 2. Oregon Penutian (1) Takelma (2) Coast Oregon Penutian (a) Coos (b) Siuslaw (c) Yakonan (3) Kalapuya 3. Chinook 4. Tsimshian 5. Plateau Penutian (1) Sahaptin (2) Waiilatpuan (Molala-Cayuse) (3) Lutuami (Klamath-Modoc) 6. Mexican Penutian (1) Mixe-Zoque (2) Huave

V. Hokan-Siouan 1. Hokan-Coahuiltecan A. Hokan (1) Northern Hokan (a) Karok, Chimariko, Shasta-Achomawl (b) Yana (c) Pomo (2) Washo (3) Esselen-Yuman (a) Esselen (b) Yuman (4) Salinan-Seri (a) Salinan (b) Chumash (c) Seri (5) Tequistlatecan (Chontal) B. Subtiaba-Tlappanec C. Coahuiltecan (1) Tonkawa (2) Coahuilteco (a) Coahuilteco proper (b) Cotoname (c) Comecrudo (3) Karankawa 2. Yuki 3. Keres 4. Tunican (1) Tunica-Atakapa (2) Chitimacha 5. Iroquois (1) Iroquoian (2) Caddoan 6. Eastern group (1) Siouan-Yuchi (a) Siouan (b) Yuchi (2) Natchez-Muskogian (a) Natchez (b) Muskogian (c) Timucua (?) VI. Aztec-Tanoan 1. Uto-Aztekan (1) Nahuatl (2) Piman (3) Shoshonean 2. Tanoan-Kiowa (1) Tanoan (2) Kiowa 3. Zuñi (?)

[edit] Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964

The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965) classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.

American Arctic-Paleosiberian phylum Eskimo-Aleut Chukchi-Kamchatkan Na-Dene phylum Athapascan Tlingit Haida Macro-Algonquian phylum Algonquian Yurok Wiyot Muskogean Natchez Atakapa Chitimacha Tunica Tonkawa Macro-Siouan phylum Siouan Catawba Caddoan Yuchi Hokan phylum Yuman Seri Pomoan Palaihnihan Shastan Yanan Chimariko Washo Salinan Karok Chumashan Comecrudan Coahuiltecan Esselen Jicaque Tlapanecan Tequistlatecan

6. Penutian phylum Yokuts Maidu Wintun Miwok-Costanoan Klamath-Modoc Sahaptin-Nez Perce Cayuse Molale Coos Yakonan Takelma Kalapuya Chinookan Tsimshian Zuni Mixe-Zoque Mayan Chipaya-Uru Totonacan Huave  7. Aztec-Tanoan phylum Kiowa-Tanoan Uto-Aztecan  8. Keres  9. Yuki 10. Beothuk 11. Kutenai 12. Karankawa 13. Chimakuan 14. Salish 15. Wakashan 16. Timucua

Chumashan, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations.

[edit] Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Campbell & Mithun's 1979 is a more conservation classification where they insist on demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phylums of previous authors are "split".

[edit] Greenberg (1987)

Joseph Greenberg's classification in his 1987 book Language in the Americas is best known for the highly controversial assertion that all North, Central and South American language families other than Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an Amerind superfamily.

1. Northern Amerind
   1. Almosan-Keresiouan
      1. Almosan
         1. Algic
         2. Kutenai
         3. Mosan
            1. Wakashan
            2. Salish
            3. Chimakuan
      2. Caddoan
      3. Keres
      4. Siouan
      5. Iroquoian
   2. Penutian
      1. California Penutian
         1. Maidu
         2. Miwok-Costanoan
         3. Wintun
         4. Yokuts
      2. Chinook
      3. Mexican Penutian (=Macro-Mayan)
         1. Huave
         2. Mayan
         3. Mixe-Zoque
         4. Totonac
      4. Oregon Penutian
      5. Plateau Penutian
      6. Tsimshian
      7. Yukian
      8. Gulf
         1. Atakapa
         2. Chitimacha
         3. Muskogean
         4. Natchez
         5. Tunica
      9. Zuni
   3. Hokan
      1. Nuclear Hokan
         1. Northern
            1. Karok-Shasta
            2. Yana
            3. Pomo
         2. Washo
         3. Esselen-Yuman
         4. Salinan-Seri
         5. Waicuri
         6. Maratino
         7. Quinigua
         8. Tequistlatec
      2. Coahuiltecan
         1. Tonkawa
         2. Nuclear Coahuiltecan
         3. Karankawa
      3. Subtiaba
      4. Jicaque
      5. Yurumangui
2. Central Amerind
   1. Kiowa-Tanoan
   2. Otomanguean
   3. Uto-Aztecan
   4. Central American (other groups except Tlapanecan (=Hokan))
3. Chibchan-Paezan (two major subfamilies).
   1. Timicua
4. Andean (two major subfamilies).
5. Equatorial-Tucanoan (two major subfamilies)
6. Ge-Pano-Carib (or Macro-Ge/Macro-Pano/Macro-Carib) (three major subfamilies)

[edit] Goddard (1996), Campell (1997), Mithun (1999)

(preliminary)

FAMILIES

1. Algic
   1. Algonquian
   2. Wiyot (>Ritwan?)
   3. Yurok (>Ritwan?)
2. Na-Dene
   1. Eyak-Athabaskan
      1. Eyak
      2. Athabaskan
   2. Tlingit
3. Caddoan (>Macro-Siouan?)
4. Chimakuan
5. Chinookan (> Penutian?)
6. Chumashan [chúmash]
7. Comecrudan
8. Coosan [kus] (> Coast Penutian?)
9. Eskimo-Aleut
   1. Eskimoan
   2. Aleut = Unangan
10. Iroquoian
11. Kalapuyan [kalapúyan]
12. Kiowa-Tanoan
13. Maiduan
14. Muskogean [m^sk^djían]
15. Palaihnihan (Achumawi-Atsugewi)
16. Pomoan [pómo, pomóan]
17. Sahaptian
18. Salishan [sélish]
19. Shastan
20. Siouan-Catawban
    1. Siouan
    2. Catawban
21. Tsimshianic
22. Utian
    1. Miwok
    2. Costanoan
23. Utaztecan
    1. Numic = Plateau
    2. Tübatulabal = Kern
    3. Takic = Southern California
    4. Hopi = Pueblo
    5. Tepiman = Pimic
    6. Taracahitic
    7. Tubar
    8. Corachol
    9. Aztecan
24. Wakashan
    1. Kwakiutlan
    2. Nootkan
25. Wintuan (>Coast Penutian?)
26. Yokutsan
27. Yuman-Cochimi
    1. Yuman
    2. Cochimi

ISOLATES

1. Adai
2. Alsea [alsi] (> Coast Penutian?)
3. Atakapa (>Tunican?)
4. Beothuk (unclassifiable?)
5. Cayuse
6. Chimariko [chimáriko]
7. Chititmacha [shitimashá] (>Tunican?)
8. Coahuilteco
9. Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo
10. Esselen
11. Haida
12. Karankawa
13. Karuk
14. Keres
15. Klamath-Modoc
16. Kootenai [kúteni]
17. Molala
18. Natchez
19. Salinan
20. Siuslaw (>Coast Penutian?)
21. Takelma [takélma]
22. Timucua
23. Tonkawa [tónkawa]
24. Tunica (>Tunican?)
25. Wappo (>Yuki-Wappo)
26. Washo
27. Yana
28. Yuchi (>Siouan)
29. Yuki (>Yuki-Wappo)
30. Zuni

STOCKS

Yuki-Wappo supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997)

• Yuki-Wappo

Penutian outside Mexico considered probably by many

• Penutian

1. Tsimshianic
2. Chinookan
3. Takelma
4. Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998)
5. Maidun
6. Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997)
   1. Alsea
   2. Coosan
   3. Siuslaw
   4. Wintuan
7. Plateau
   1. Sahaptian
   2. Klamath
   3. Molala
   4. Cayuse ? (poor data)
8. Yok-Utian ?
   1. Yokuts
   2. Utian

Siouan-Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely

• Macro-Siouan

1. Iroquoian-Caddoan
   1. Iroquoian
   2. Caddoan
2. Siouan-Yuchi
   1. Siouan-Catawban
   2. Yuchi

Natchez-Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis

• Natchez-Muskogean

1. Natchez
2. Muskogean

Hokan: most promising proposals

• Hokan

1. Karuk
2. Chimariko
3. Shastan
4. Palaihnihan
5. Yana
6. Washo
7. Pomoan
8. Esselen
9. Salinan
10. Yuman-Cochimi
11. Seri

"Unlikely" to be Hokan:

Chumashan

Tonkawa

Karankawa

Subtiaba-Tlappanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977).

Aztec-Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a Sprachbund.

[edit] Mesoamerica

(Consensus conservative classification)

FAMILIES

• Uto-Aztecan (Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America)

1. Corachol (Cora-Huichol)
2. Aztecan (Nahua-Pochutec)

• Totonac-Tepehua

• Otomanguean

1. Otopamean
2. Popolocan-Mazatecan
3. Subtiaba-Tlapanec
4. Amuzgo
5. Mixtecan
6. Chatino-Zapotec
7. Chinantec
8. Chiapanec-Mangue (extinct)

• Tequistlatec-Jicaque

• Mixe-Zoque

• Mayan

• Misumalpan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America)

• Chibchan (Outside Mesoamerican proper. See South America)

1. Paya

ISOLATES

• Tarascan (= Purepecha)
• Cuitlatec (extinct)
• Huave
• Xinca (extinct?)
• Lenca (extinct)

PROPOSED STOCKS

• Hokan (see North America)

1. Tequistlatec-Jicaque

• Macro-Mayan (Penutian affiliation now considered doubtful.)

1. Totonac-Tepehua
2. Huave
3. Mixe-Zoque
4. Mayan

• Macro-Chibchan

1. Chibchan
2. Misumalpan
3. Paya (sometimes placed in Chibchan proper)
4. Xinca
5. Lenca

[edit] South America

[edit] Kaufman (1990)

[edit] Families & isolates

Terrence Kaufman's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 "genetic units". Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only language family, such language area, emergent area, and language complex, where he recognizes issues such as partial mutual intelligibility and dialect continuums. The list below collapses these into simply families. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. A final note is that Kaufman uses his own nomenclature for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself (this unfortunately makes comparison with other classifications slightly more complicated). His names have been retained below.

Families: Aimoré Arawán Barbakóan Bóran Boróroan Chapakúran Charrúan Chíbchan Chimúan Chipaya Chokó Cholónan Chon Haki Harákmbut Hiraháran Hívaro Jabutían Je Kamakánan Karajá Káriban Katakáoan Katukínan Kawapánan Kawéskar Kechua Maipúrean Mashakalían Maskóian Matákoan Misumalpa Mosetén Múran Nambikuara Otomákoan Páesan Pánoan Puinávean Purían Sálivan Samúkoan Sáparoan Takánan Timótean Tiníwan Tukánoan Tupían Wahívoan Waikurúan Warpe Witótoan Yanomáman Yáwan

Isolates/Unclassfied: Aikaná Andoke Awaké Baenã Betoi Chikitano Ezmeralda Fulnió Gamela Gorgotoki Guató Hotí Iranshe Itonama Jaruro Jeikó Jurí Kaliana Kamsá Kanichana Kapishaná Karirí Katembrí Kayuvava Koayá Kofán Kandoshi Kolyawaya jargon Kukurá Kulyi Kunsa Leko Lule Maku Mapudungu Matanawí Movima Munichi Natú Ofayé Omurano Otí Pankararú Puelche Pukina Rikbaktsá Sabela Sechura Shokó Shukurú Tarairiú Taruma Tekiraka Tikuna Trumai Tushá Urarina Vilela Wamo Wamoé Warao Yámana Yurakare Yurimang

[edit] Stocks

In addition to his conversative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often an obvious hyphenation of two members, for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks.

"Good" stocks:

• Awaké-Kaliana
• Chibcha-Misumalpa
• Ezmeralda-Jaruro
• Jurí-Tikuna
• Kechumara (=Kechua + Haki) (good?)
• Lule-Vilela
• Mosetén-Chon (good?)
• Páes-Barbakóa
• Pano-Takana
• Sechura-Katakao
• Wamo-Chapakúra

"Probable" stocks:

• macro-Je (=Chikitano + Boróroan + Aimoré + Rikbaktsá + Je + Jeikó + Kamakánan + Mashakalían + Purían + Fulnío + Karajá + Ofayé + Guató)
• Mura-Matanawí

"Promising" stocks:

• Kaliánan (=Awaké + Kaliana + Maku)

"Maybe" stocks:

• Bora-Witoto
• Hívaro-Kawapana
• Kunsa-Kapishaná
• Pukina-Kolyawaya
• Sáparo-Yawa

[edit] Clusters & networks

Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms clusters and networks. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.

[edit] Bibliography

See: Native_American_languages#Bibliography