Christian monasticism

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The Order of Friars Minor is a major mendicant movement founded by Saint Francis of Assisi.
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The Order of Friars Minor is a major mendicant movement founded by Saint Francis of Assisi.

Monasticism in Christianity is a family of similar traditions that began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, modeled upon scriptural examples and ideals, but not mandated as an institution by the Scriptures.

While most people think of Christian or Catholic monks or nuns as "something to do with living in a monastery", from the Church's point of view the focus has nothing to do with living in a monastery or performing any specific activity, rather the focus is on an ideal called the religious life, also called the state of perfection. This idea is expressed everywhere that the things of God are sought above all other things, as seen for example in the Philokalia, a book of monastic writings. In other words, a monk or nun is a person who has vowed to follow not only the commandments of the Church, but also the evangelical counsels (e.g., vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience). The words of Jesus which are the cornerstone for this ideal are "be ye perfect like your heavenly Father is perfect".

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[edit] Precursor models of the Christian monastic ideal

The ancient models of the modern Christian monastic ideal are the Nazirites and the prophets of Israel. A Nazirite was a person voluntarily separated to the Lord, under a special vow.

2 Speak to the Israelites and say to them: 'If a man or woman wants to make a special vow, a vow of separation to the LORD as a Nazirite, 3 he must abstain from wine and other fermented drink... 5 During the entire period of his vow of separation no razor may be used on his head. He must be holy until the period of his separation to the LORD is over; he must let the hair of his head grow long. 6 Throughout the period of his separation to the LORD he must not go near a dead body.... 8 Throughout the period of his separation he is consecrated to the LORD.' (Numbers 6, NIV)

The prophets of Israel were set apart to the Lord for the sake of a message of repentance. Some of them lived under extreme conditions, voluntarily separated or forced into seclusion because of the burden of their message. Other prophets were members of communities, schools mentioned occasionally in the Scriptures but about which there is much speculation and little known. The pre-Abrahamic prophets, Enoch and Melchizedek, and especially the Jewish prophets Elijah and his disciple Elisha are important to Christian monastic tradition. The most frequently cited "role-model" for the life of a hermit separated to the Lord, in whom the Nazarite and the prophet are believed to be combined in one person, is John the Baptist. John also had disciples who stayed with him and, as may be supposed, were taught by him and lived in a manner similar to his own.

1 In those days John the Baptist came, preaching in the Desert of Judea… 4 John's clothes were made of camel's hair, and he had a leather belt around his waist. His food was locusts and wild honey. 5 People went out to him from Jerusalem and all Judea and the whole region of the Jordan. 6 Confessing their sins, they were baptized by him in the Jordan River. (Matthew 3, NIV)

The female role models for monasticism are Mary the mother of Jesus and the four virgin daughters of Philip the Evangelist:

7 On finishing the voyage from Tyre, we arrived at Ptolemais, greeted the brothers, and stayed with them for one day. 8 The next day we left and came to Caesarea. We went to the home of Philip the evangelist, one of the seven, and stayed with him. 9 He had four unmarried daughters who could prophesy. (Acts 21, NIV)

The monastic ideal is also modeled upon the Apostle Paul, who is believed to have been celibate, and a tentmaker:

7 I wish that all men were as I am. But each man has his own gift from God; one has this gift, another has that. 8 Now to the unmarried and the widows I say: It is good for them to stay unmarried, as I am. (1 Corinthians 7, NIV)

But, the consummate prototype of all modern Christian monasticism, communal and solitary, is Jesus:

5 Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: 6 Who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped, 7 but made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness. 8 And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedient to death—even death on a cross! (Philippians 2, NIV)

The first Christian communities lived in common, sharing everything, according to Acts of the Apostles.

[edit] Origins of Christian monasticism

By the time Christian monasticism emerged in the 4th century CE, Buddhist monasteries had been in existence for seven hundred years or more, and had spread deep into the Persian empire. Prof. Thurman says "It is quite likely that (Buddhist monasticism) influenced West Asia, North Africa, and Europe through lending its institutional style to Manicheism and Aramaic and Egyptian Christianity."

Institutional Christian monasticism seems to have begun in the deserts in AD 4th century Egypt as a kind of living martyrdom. Scholars such as Lester K. Little attribute the rise of monasticism at this time to the immense changes in the church that had been brought about by Constantine's conversion and the acceptance of Christianity as the main Roman religion. This ended the position of Christians as a small group that believed itself to be the godly elite. In response a new more advanced form of dedication was developed to preserve a nucleus of the dedicated. The end of persecution also meant that martyrdom was no longer an option to prove one's piety. Instead the longterm martyrdom of the ascetic become common.

Others point to historical evidence that individuals were living the life later known as monasticism before the legalization of Christianity. In fact it is believed by the Carmelites that they were started by the Jewish prophet Elias. Anthony the Great and Pachomius were early monastic innovators in Egypt, although Paul the Hermit is the very first Christian historically known to have been living as a monk. Eastern Orthodoxy looks to Basil of Caesarea as a founding monastic legislator, as well as the example of the Desert Fathers. Benedict of Nursia is often credited with being the 'father of Western monasticism'.

From a very early time there were probably individuals who lived a life in isolation—hermits—in imitation of Jesus' 40 days in the desert. They have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Anthony of Egypt lived as a hermit and developed a following of other hermits who lived nearby but not in community with him. On the other hand, Paul the Hermit lived not very far from Anthony in absolute solitude, and was looked upon even by Anthony as a perfect monk. This variety of monasticism is called eremitical or "hermit-like". Pachomius, a follower of Anthony, also acquired a following; he chose to mould them into a community in which the monks lived in individual huts or rooms (cellula in Latin, "cell", which has a different connotation in modern English) but worked, ate, and worshipped in shared space. This method of monastic organization is called cenobitic or "community-based." All the familiar monastic orders are cenobitic in nature. In Catholic theology, this community based living is considered superior because of the obedience practiced and because one is less likely to err than one would be by oneself. The head of a monastery came to be known by the word for "Father" in Syriac, Abba, in English, "Abbot".

[edit] History

The first efforts to create a proto-monastery were by Saint Macarius, who established individual cells, an example Kellia founded in 328, known as "larvae", the purpose of which was to bring together individual ascetics who, although pious, did not have the physical ability or skills to live a solitary existences in the desert like that of Saint Anthony. These cells were put together as a large single monastic community by Saint Pachomius around 323 in upper Egypt at Tabennesi. Guidelines for daily life were created, and separate monasteries created for men and women. He was hailed as Abba ("father", from which we get the word Abbot). This one community was so successful he was called in to help organize others and by one count by the time he died in 346 there were thought to be 3000 such communities dotting Egypt, especially the Thebaid. Within the span of the next generation this number increased to 7000. From there it quickly spread out first to Palestine and the Judean Desert, Syria, North Africa and eventually the rest of the Roman Empire where it became a central aspect of life during the Middle Ages. The first non-Roman area to adopt the system was Ireland, which developed a unique form closely linked to traditional clan relations, a system that later spread to other parts of Europe, especially France.

The ascetic monasteries required rules to live by and in the eastern half of the Roman Empire the rules were created by Saint Basil of Caesarea, called the ascetic rule, or Ascetica. It is the rule still used today in the Orthodox Church. In the West the rules were set a few generations later by Saint Benedict of Nursia who created the Rule of Saint Benedict at his monastery in Monte Cassino, it would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages, spawning many other Orders, and it is still in use today.

Monasteries were initially seen by the Church Bishops and imperial governments in Constantinople and Rome as operating outside the authority of the official Church governance, not to mention the Emperor. There existed a tension between the lay clergy and the monastic orders. Eventually over the course of the Early Middle Ages the monastic clergy came to infiltrate the regular Church. Thus the golden age of Christian monasticism lasted from about the eighth to the twelfth century. During this century the monasteries developed an almost complete monopoly on prayer and religion in general. The monasteries became an essential part of society as the main intermediary between people and God. This activity brought considerable wealth and power. The monasteries also attracted many of the best people in society and during this period the monasteries were the central storehouses and producers of knowledge.

The system broke down in the eleventh and twelfth centuries as religion began to change. Religion became far less a preserve of the religious elite. This was closely linked to the rise of mendicant orders such as the Franciscan friars, who were dedicated to spreading the word in public, not in closed monasteries. Religious behavior changed as common people began to take communion and actively participate in religion. The growing pressure of the nation states and monarchies also threatened the wealth and power of the orders.

Monasticism continued to play a role in Catholicism, but after the Protestant reformation many monasteries in Northern Europe were shut down and their assets seized. (see Dissolution of the Monasteries).

The legacy of monasteries outside remains an important current in modern society. Max Weber compared the closeted and puritan societies of the English Dissenters, who sparked much of the industrial revolution, to monastic orders. Many Utopian thinkers (starting with Thomas More himself) felt inspired by the common life of monks to apply it to the whole society (an example is the falansterium).

Modern universities have also attempted to ape Christian monasticism. Even in the new world universities are built in the gothic style of twelfth century monasteries. Communal meals, dormitory residences, elaborate rituals and dress all borrow heavily from the monastic tradition.

Orthodox monks farming potatos in Russia, ca. 1910
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Orthodox monks farming potatos in Russia, ca. 1910

Today monasticism remains an important part of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican faith. Vatican II saw major changes to Catholic monasticism including allowing nuns and monks to shed their habits.

[edit] Nature of monasticism

Christian monasticism was and continued to be a lay condition—monks depended on a local parish church for the sacraments. However, if the monastery was isolated in the desert, as were many of the Egyptian examples, that inconvenience compelled monasteries either to take in priest members, to have their abbot ordained, or to have other members ordained. A priest-monk is sometimes called a hieromonk. In many cases in Eastern Orthodoxy, when a bishopric needed to be filled, they would look to nearby monasteries to find suitable candidates. Since many priests were married (before being ordained to the priesthood), but bishops were required to be celibate, monasteries were a good source of celibate men who were also spiritually mature and generally possessing the other qualities desired in a bishop. Gregory Palamas is one such example.

[edit] Secular influence

In traditional Catholic societies, monastic communities often took charge of social services such as education and healthcare; to the latter they were so closely linked that nurses are often called "sisters."

In the Middle Ages, monasteries conserved and copied ancient manuscripts in their scriptoria, their pharmacies stored and studied medicaments and they aided the development of agricultural techniques. The requirement of wine for the Mass led to the development of wine culture, as shown in the discovery of the méthode champenoise by Dom Perignon. Several liquors like Bénédictine and the trappist beers were also developed in monastries. Even today many monasteries and convents are locally renowned for their cooking specialties.

Christian monks cultivated the arts as a way of praising God. Gregorian chant and miniatures are examples.

The status of monks as apart from secular life (at least theoretically) served a social function. Dethroned Visigothic kings were tonsured and sent to a monastery so that they could not claim the crown back. Around the change of millennium, monasteries became a place for second sons to live in celibacy so that the family inheritance went to the first son; in exchange the families donated to the monasteries. Some orders were favored by monarchs and rich families to keep and educate their maiden daughters before arranged marriage. This however did not bar seducers like the fictional Don Juan and the real Giacomo Casanova from assaulting convents and novices.

The monasteries also provided refuge to those sick of earthly life like Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor who retired to Yuste in his late years.

[edit] Christian monastic orders

A number of distinct monastic orders developed within Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism. Eastern Orthodoxy does not have a system of orders, per se.

[edit] Anglican Communion

A small but hugely influential aspect of Anglicanism is its religious orders of monks and nuns, Brothers and Sisters. Shortly after the beginning of the revival of the Catholic Movement in the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for some Anglican Sisters of Charity. In 1848 Mother Priscilla Lydia Sellon became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the See of Canterbury. In October 1850 the first building specifically built for the purpose of housing an Anglican Sisterhood was concecrated at Abbeymere in Plymouth. It housed several schools for the destitute, a laundry, printing press and soup kitchen. A series of letters were exchanged publicly between her and the Rev. James Spurrell, Vicar of Great Shelford, Cambs., who, along with others, criticised Miss Sellon's Sisters of Mercy. From the 1840s and throughout the next one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the UK and the United States, as well as in various countries of Africa, Asia, Canada, India and the Pacific.

Anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to God under the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience (or in Benedictine communinities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practicing a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the Breviary in choir, along with a daily Eucharist, plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combing aspects of the contemplative orders and the active orders remains to this day a hall mark of Anglican Religious Life.

Since the 1960's, there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in all parts of the Anglican Communion. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct.

There are however, still several thousand Anglican religious working today in approximately 200 communities around the world.

The most surprising growth has been in the Melanesian countries of Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea. The Melanesian Brotherhood, based at Tabalia, Guadalcanal, in 1925, by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450 Brothers in Solomons Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and the United Kingdom. The Sisters of the Church, started by Mother Emily Ayckbowm in England in 1870, has more Sisters in the Solomons than all their other communities. The Community of the Sisters of Melanesia, started in 1980 by Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of women throughout the Solomon Islands. The Society of Saint Francis, founded as a union of various Franciscan orders in the 1920s, has experienced great growth in the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Lydia Sellon herself travelled to the Sandwich Islands, better known now as Hawaii, in 1864 where she and her sisters founded a school. Most Melanesian Anglican religious are in their early to mid 20s, making the average age 40 to 50 years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries. This growth is especially surprising because celibacy was not regarded as a Melanesian virtue.

[edit] Protestant Monasticism

The tradition of monasticism in the Protestant tradition remotes from John Wyclif who organized the Lollard Preacher Order (the "Poor Priests") to promote his reformation views.

During the Reformation the teachings of Luther led to the end the monasteries, but a few Protestants followed monastic lives. Since the 19th century there have been a renewal in the monastic life among Protestants.

In 1946 Roger Schutz, known as Brother Roger, founded in France an independent Interdenominational Protestant Religious Order, aka Taizé Community. They are redefined as "Ecumenical", rather than as a "Protestant" Community.

In 1947 Mother Basilea Schlink and Mother Martyria founded the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary, in Darmstadt, Germany. This movement is largely considered Evangelical or Lutheran in its roots.

In other Lutheran traditions "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ" was established at St. Augustine's House (http://www.staugustineshouse.org/) in Oxford, Michigan, U.S.A., in 1958 when some other men joined Father Arthur Kreinheder in observing the monastic life and offices of prayer. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has always remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur himself. During the 35 years of its existence over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur's death in 1989 only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006, there are 2 permanent professed members and 2 long-term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their brothers in Sweden (http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/klostren/OSTANENG.htm) and in Germany (http://www.st-wigberti.com/).

Around 1964, Reuben Archer Torrey III, an Episcopal missionary, grandson of R. A. Torrey, founded Jesus Abbey as a missionary community in Korea. It is has some links with the Episcopal Church and hold an Evangelical doctrine.

In 1999 an independent Protestant order was founded named The Knights of Prayer Monastic Order. The community maintains a number of monks in its Portland, Oregon, cloister; and has an international network of associated lay people. It is not affiliated with any particular congregation.

In February, 2001 the United Methodist Church organized the Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery is a Methodist-Benedictine residential monastery for women in Collegeville, MN.

The Order of Ecumenical Franciscans (OEF)[1] is a religious order of men and women devoted to following the examples of Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Clare of Assisi in their life and understanding of the Christian gospel: sharing a love for creation and those who have been marginalized. An example of Christian ecumenism, the OEF includes members of many different denominations, including Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and the whole range of Protestant traditions. The OEF understands its charism to include not only ecumenical efforts and the traditional emphases of the Franciscans in general, but also to help to develop relationships between the various Franciscan orders.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  • Lawrence, C. H. Medieval Monasticism. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2001. ISBN 0-582-40427-4

[edit] External links

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