Castle Bravo
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Castle Bravo was the code name given to the first U.S. test of a so-called dry fuel thermonuclear device, detonated on March 1, 1954 at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands, by the United States, as the first test of Operation Castle (a longer series of tests of various devices). Unexpected fallout from the detonation—intended to be a secret test—poisoned the crew of Daigo Fukuryū Maru, a Japanese fishing boat, and created international concern about atmospheric thermonuclear testing.
The bomb used lithium deuteride fuel for the fusion stage, unlike the cryonic liquid deuterium used as fuel for the fusion stage of the U.S. first-generation Ivy Mike device. It was therefore the basis for the first practical deliverable hydrogen bomb in the U.S. arsenal. The Soviet Union had previously used lithium deuteride in a nuclear bomb, their Sloika (also known as Alarm Clock) design, but since it was a single-stage weapon, its maximum yield was limited. Like Mike, Bravo used the more advanced Teller-Ulam design for creating a multi-stage thermonuclear device.
It was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated by the United States, with a yield of 15 megatons. That yield, far exceeding the expected yield of 4 to 8 megatons, combined with other factors to produce the worst radiological accident ever caused by the United States.
Though some 1,000 times more powerful than the atomic bombs which were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, it was considerably smaller than the largest nuclear test conducted by the Soviet Union several years later, the ~50 Mt Tsar Bomba.
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[edit] Design and detonation
The device detonated for the test was named "Shrimp" and was the same basic configuration as the Ivy Mike device, except with a different kind of fusion fuel. This device also implemented a light case design, using aluminium instead of the heavy steel case used in Mike.
Inside a cylindrical case was a smaller cylinder of lithium deuteride fusion fuel, the secondary, with a regular fission atomic bomb (the primary) at one end; the latter was used to create the conditions needed to start the fusion reaction. Running down the center of the secondary was a cylindrical rod of plutonium (the sparkplug), which was used to ignite the fusion reaction. Surrounding this assembly was a natural uranium tamper; the space between the tamper and the case formed a radiation channel to conduct X-rays from the primary to the secondary. (The function of the X-rays was to compress the secondary (by various means; see Teller-Ulam design), increasing the density and temperature of the deuterium to the levels needed to sustain the thermonuclear reaction, and compressing the sparkplug to supercriticality ignition.)
It was practically identical to the "Runt" device later detonated in Castle Romeo, but used partially enriched lithium in the fusion fuel. Natural lithium is a mixture of lithium-6 and lithium-7 isotopes (with 7.5% of the former); the enriched lithium used in Bravo was approximately 40% lithium-6. The primary was a standard RACER 4 fusion-boosted atomic bomb.
The device was a very large cylinder weighing 23,500 pounds (10,660 kg) and measuring 179.5 inches (4.56 m) in length and 53.9 inches (1.37 m) in width. It was mounted in a "shot cab" on an artificial island built on a reef off Namu Island, in the Bikini Atoll. A sizeable array of diagnostic instruments were trained on it, including a number of high-speed cameras which were trained through an arc of mirror towers around the shot cab.
When Bravo was detonated, it formed a fireball almost three miles (roughly 5 km) across within a second. This fireball was visible on the Kwajalein atoll over 250 miles (450 km) away. The explosion left a crater of 6,500 feet (2,000 m) in diameter and 250 feet (75 m) in depth. The mushroom cloud reached a height of 47,000 feet (14.3 km) and a diameter of 7 miles (11.3 km) in about a minute; it then reached a height of 130,000 feet (39.6 km) and 62 miles (100 km) in diameter in less than 10 minutes.
[edit] High yield cause
The yield of 15 megatons was three times what was expected, as the explosion ran away. The cause of the high yield was a laboratory error made at Los Alamos National Laboratory, designers of the device.
It was expected that lithium-6 isotope would absorb a neutron from the fissioning plutonium, emit an alpha particle and tritium in the process, of which the latter would then fuse with deuterium (which was already present in the LiD) and increase the yield in a predicted manner.
Their reckoning had missed the fact that when the lithium-7 isotope (which was considered basically inert) is bombarded with high-energy neutrons, it absorbs a neutron then decomposes to form an alpha particle, another neutron, and a tritium nucleus. This means that much more tritium was produced than expected, and the extra tritium in fusion with deuterium (as well as the extra neutron from lithium-7 decomposition) produced many more neutrons than expected and induced more fission of the uranium tamper, increasing yield.
This resultant extra fuel (both lithium-6 and lithium-7) contributed greatly to the fusion reactions and neutron production, and in this manner greatly increased the device's yield. Ironically, the test used lithium with a high percentage of lithium-7 only because lithium-6 was (at the time) scarce and expensive; the later Castle Union test used almost pure lithium-6. Had more lithium-6 been available, the usability of the common lithium-7 might not have been discovered.
Of the total 15-megaton yield, 10 megatons were from fission of the natural uranium tamper. Thus the direct effect on the yield of the fusion was in this case smaller than the fusion's effect of enabling fission.
[edit] Fallout accident
The fission reactions of the natural uranium tamper were quite dirty, producing a large amount of fallout. That, combined with the much-larger-than-expected yield and a major wind shift, produced a number of very serious consequences. Although the leaders of the test knew that the change in weather would cause the test to affect areas of ocean that had not been cleared, they decided to proceed with the test[citation needed].
Radioactive fallout was spread eastward onto the inhabited Rongelap and Rongerik atolls, which were soon evacuated. Many of the Marshall Islands natives have since suffered from birth defects and have received some compensation from the Federal government. See Project 4.1 for controversy surrounding this exposure.[1]
A Japanese fishing boat, Lucky Dragon No. 5, also came into contact with the fallout which caused many of the crew to grow ill; one eventually died. This resulted in an international uproar and reignited Japanese concerns about radiation, especially in regard to the possibility of contaminated fish. The outcry in Japan reached such a level that diplomatic relations became strained and the incident was even dubbed by some as "a second Hiroshima". Nevertheless the Japanese and U.S. governments quickly reached a political settlement which gave the fishery a compensation of 2 million dollars with the surviving victims receiving between 1.91 million yen and 2.29 million yen each. It was also agreed that the victims would not be given Hibakusha status.
Unanticipated fallout and radiation also affected many of the vessels and personnel involved in the test, in some cases trapping them in bunkers. One prominent scientist later recalled that he was on a ship 30 miles away, and received 10 Röntgen of radiation as a result. Sixteen crew members of the aircraft carrier USS Bairoko received beta burns and there was a greatly increased cancer rate. Radioactive contamination also affected many of the testing facilities built on other islands of the Bikini atoll system.
The fallout spread traces of radioactive material as far as Australia, India and Japan, and even the US and parts of Europe. Though organized as a secret test, Castle Bravo quickly became an international incident, prompting calls for a ban on the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear devices. (DeGroot 2004, pp. 196-198)
In addition to the radiological accident, the unexpectedly high yield of the device severely damaged many of the permanent buildings on the control site island on the far side of the atoll. Very little of the desired diagnostic data on the shot was collected; many instruments designed to transmit their data back before being destroyed by the blast were instead vaporized instantly, while most of the instruments that were expected to be recovered for data retrieval were destroyed by the blast.
[edit] Later devices
The Shrimp device design later evolved into the Mk-21 bomb, of which 275 units were produced, weighing 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg) and measuring 12.5 feet (3.8 m) long and 56 inches (1.4 m) in diameter. This 4 megaton bomb was produced until July 1956. In 1957, it was converted into the Mk-36 and entered into production again.
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- Downloadable/Streamable Declassified Film: Operation Castle Commanders Report, at the Internet Archive
- Downloadable/Streamable Declassified Film: Military Effects Studies Operation Castle, at the Internet Archive
- Operation Castle
- US tests hydrogen bomb in Bikini (BBC News)
- First-person article about conducting the test
[edit] References
- ^ Nuclear Issues. Retrieved on 2006-03-26.
- Gerard DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (London: Jonathan Cape, 2004) ISBN 0-224-06232-8
- Chuck Hansen, U. S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (Arlington: AeroFax, 1988)
- Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995)
- Holly M. Barker, Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining control in a Post-Nuclear, Post Colonial World (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2004)
- Republic of the Marshall Islands Embassy website
