Byzantium after Byzantium
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Byzantium after Byzantium (Bizanţ dupa Bizanţ in Romanian; Byzance après Byzance in French) refers to the Byzantine imperial heritage related to the political, social, cultural, and intellectual background of the history of the two principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. The notion (originally "Byzance après Byzance" in French, compare Third Rome in Russian) was coined by the Romanian historian Nicolae Iorga, in his 1935 eponymic work. The book deals with the impact of the fall of Byzantine Empire on European civilization, the legacy and the continuation of Byzantine institutions and culture.
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[edit] Byzantium after Byzantium
From the fourteenth century on through the fifteenth, the Ottoman Empire expanded at the expense of the Byzantine Empire. Bursa fell in 1326 and Adrianople in 1361; each in turn became the capital of the empire. Following the victories at the Battle of Kosovo (1389) and Battle of Nikopol (1396), Serbia and Bulgaria were now under Ottoman rule. In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, bringing an end to the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire which had survived its predecessor in the West by nearly one thousand years. After the Battle of Mohács (1541), the major part of Hungary was absorbed by the Ottoman Empire. By the late 16th century, the three independent principalities in the area, Moldavia, Transylvania and Wallachia where surrounded from the west, south and the east by the Islamic Ottomans and Tartars, and neighboring to the north Catholic Poland, which although Christian, proved itself to be as dangerous as the Ottomans. It is in these conditions that north of the Danube the most powerful and the most efficient autonomous states would become Moldavia and Walachia. Although sometimes forced to pay an annual indemnity (tribute) to the Porte, the principalities fall under the proper yoke of the Ottoman themselves only much later. As a result they became a shelter for several Greek nobles and scholars of the late Byzantine years.
However, while the state ceased to exist, the notion of "Byzantium", as a cultural and ideological reference, did not die, but continued to influence the remaining autonomous states and offshoots of the Byzantine Empire.
The title of "the Third Rome" was a temptation for many free Orthodox states. Stirrings of these sentiments began immediately after Constantinople's fall. The Greek Empire of Trebizond, an asserter of claims to be the legitimate successor of the Byzantine Empire as early as 1204 when it was founded as an offshoot of the Byzantine Empire after the Latin conquest, was conquered in 1461 by the Turks. In Europe, first to claim to be an heir were Stefan Dušan, king of Serbia, and Ivan Alexander, king of Bulgaria, both related to the Byzantine dynasty. The plans of Serbs and Bulgarians were never realized as the Ottomans defeated the Serbs at Kosovo Polje in 1389, and put an end to the Second Bulgarian Kingdom in 1396 with the occupation of the Despotate of Vidin. In 1469, Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow had married Sophia Paleologos, a niece of Constantine XI, the last Greek Emperor and claimed to be the heir of the fallen Eastern Roman Empire, declaring himself Tsar (Caesar). Stephen the Great of Moldavia married one of the last Byzantine princesses, Maria of the Principality of Theodoro in 1472.
But unlike Bulgaria, Serbia and Russia, were successive Tsars emulated the costume, titles, the court ceremonial of the Byzantine emperors, and other imperial symbols, sometimes boldly proclaiming that Byzantine political authority had been transferred to them, in the Romanian Principalities, the legacy was never stated as such, by claims of continuation, but it was rather the result of a self-assessment of the condition in which the principalities developed, and the opportunities which were offered to other Orthodox Christians from occupied countries. The society evolved naturally into a community which incorporated the Byzantine legacy, ensuring its perennity, and which later has often been considered the "genetic model" of the Romanian Medieval civilization. Hence the process should not be understood as a Grecisation-Hellenization of the state, but rather the assuming the idea of what the pole of Orthodox Christianity, the multi-ethnic (but NOT multi-national) Byzantine Empire, stood for, prior to the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
A self-gained historical advantage provided Wallachia and Moldavia the opportunity to become, and to credibly imagine (not claim) themselves, as the heirs of the Orthodox Byzantium, a phenomenon mutually acknowledged by the politics of the times. In this period of relative calm, the monastic and cultural life flourished unperturbed. The institutions, ideas, aspirations, education, way of life, and the superior type of human realization, everything that represented the grandeur of the world whose defeated descendants remained faithful to, was saved by these independent Principalities, as they were an asylum and shelter for refugees, as well a protectors of subjugated Orthodox Christians from all over the conquered Balkans. Nicolae Iorga would wrote: "There was a time when it appeared that the entire Byzantine, Balkan legacy would be inherited by the Romanian princes who, as the only ones who remained standing among the Christians, showed that they wanted to preserve it and that they were capable to sacrifice themselves for it".
[edit] Church
In Wallachia and Moldova, the religious worship and the Church hierarchy were of the Byzantine tradition. Until the fall of Constantinople in 1453, metropolitans there had to be consecrated by the Patriarch of Constantinople.
Wallachia and Moldavia became a center of monastic life, as the spiritual life blossomed, attracting hermits from all off the Eastern Orthodox Churches, looking for ascetic and hermit life. Indeed, only between 1457-1504, Stephen the Great founded no less than 44 churches and monasteries, some of which are now part of UNESCO's World Heritage.
The Hospodars assumed the role of protectors of Eastern Orthodoxy, notably by becoming the main patrons of Mount Athos, by the perpetuation of Byzantine ceremonial customs, and the assimilation of Greek clerks and intellectual immigrants.
[edit] Personalities
- St Petru Movila (Petro Mohyla in Ukrainian), Moldavian Metropolitan of Kiev and Halych and founder of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, one of the oldest and most distinguished academic and theological schools in Eastern Europe. An important political figure of his time, he had a profound influence on the Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Theology, managing to reconcile the religious thesis of the three most important East Orthodox churches: the Greek Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, Russian and Romanian churches.
- Dosoftei, metropolitan of Moldavia, scholar, poet and translator.
- Constantin Brâncoveanu, Wallachian Voievod, patron of art, literature and culture.
- Macarie, Moldavian typographer, he studied and printed books in Venice, Cetinje and Moldavia.
- St Paisius Velichkovsky, Ukrainian theologian and translator of theological writings, he accomplished much of his work under the patronage of Moldavian Church, exerting immense influence to the Russian Orthodox Church. Canonized by the Romanian, Ukrainian and Russian Orthodox Church.
- Daniil the Hermit, Moldavian hermit and counselor of Stephen the Great. Canonized by the Romanian Orthodox Church.
- Anthim the Iberian, Georgian ecclesiastic, a noted Eastern Orthodox theologian and philosopher, and Metropolitan of Bucharest in 1708-1715.
[edit] Art
[edit] Byzantine art
The artistic products of the contemporary peoples from this part of Europe, within or outisde the Byzantine Empire, from about the 5th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453, was the same, sharing a common culture with it.
Up to the fifteenth century, the religious art of the Romanian Principalities, like in the rest of the Balkans and Eastern Europe was under pronounced Byzantine influence.
At first, the art of the icons, painted either according to the indications of the "Painter's Manual", were copied directly from imported Byzantine models, as original Byzantine characteristics are clearly seen in religious paintings of earlier dates. It was natural that the princes and their entourages should import both objects of art and artists from Constantinople and promote to have such objects made in Moldavia, according to Byzantine fashion. However, starting from the 15th century, we can speak of local artistic and architectural stiles and schools.
[edit] Church Patronage
The vast majority of Wallachian and Moldavian princes adopted the tradition of Church patronage, making generous donations to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and Orthodox monasteries throughout the Balkans. Orthodox monks from all over the Balkans turned to the Christian rulers of Wallachia and Moldavia for patronage and financial support. The Wallachian and Moldavian rulers acted according to an old-fashioned doctrine of noblesse oblige. These acts were not eccentric activities, but a complex strategy of sponsoring the monastic life of remote regions. Many of modern monasteries on Mount Athos have Wallachian and Moldavian princes as their "second founders".
The external support dried up in the eighteenth century, when Phanariots, mostly Greeks, were set by the Ottomans as Hospodars in charge of the administration of Wallachia and Moldavia. The Principalities, although autonomous, were obliged to accept a Prince appointed by the Sultan, to ensure that future problems would not arise due to insubordination of the native princes, who although officially vassals, were engaging in permanent skirmishes with the Ottomans. However, although weakened under the Phanariots, the Principalities continued to provide some revenue up until the 19th century, when a considerable part of the annual incomes of the monasteries of Mount Athos were still provided by the bequests of Wallachian and Moldavian monasteries.
[edit] See also
- Culture of Romania
- Romanian folklore
- Romanian Orthodox Church
- History of Romania
- Painted churches of northern Moldavia
- List of religious buildings in Romania
[edit] External links
[edit] Gallery
 Chrysobull of Ieremia Movilă, the Voivode of Moldavia, 30 March 7114 (1606) |
 Mural painting from Voroneţ Monastery, 15th century |
[edit] Notes
- ^ Together with the painting of her husband, the Prince Radu de la Afumaţi , the icon is a continuation of the "family icons" from Curtea de Argeş cathedral. Currently held at the National Museum of Art of Romania.
Description: Roxanda, depicted as the official founder, is holding the model of the church, wearing a ceremonial costume: white shirt with very large sleeves, pleated red dress and an Italian velvet mantle with gold motifs, and a fur collar folded over her shoulders. Her rich crown with fleurons is placed over a pearl string network which covers her hair. Her head-dress has prependoulia pendants which hang from her temple to the level of the lower jaw. Stylistically, the icon belong to 16th century Wallachian painting, as seen in the modeling of face, the oblong eyes and curved eyelashes, the warm and light modeling of the flesh. - ^ Description: Date: 20 February 1760; Language: Romanian; Scribe: priest Floru, Professor of Slavonic in the Church of Old Saint George in Bucharest; Paper, 73 x 53 cm.
Content: "Scarlat G. Ghica, Voivode of Wallachia, announces the arrival in Bucharest of the miraculous fragment of the True Cross, which is one cubit in length and was given to Xeropotamou Monastery by the Emperor Romanos. Following the example of previous princes, the Voivode confirms the old gift to the Monastery of 500 thalers from the camarashes of the salt-mines on 9 March (the Feast of the Forty Martyrs). He also makes the Metropolitan Philaretos and his successors in Wallachia responsible for sending the sum to the monastery. Confirmed by the Prince himself, his sons Alexandru, Mihail, Nicolae, Grigore, and Gheorghe, and eleven great boyars of the Divan of Wallachia." - ^ The icon belongs to the so-called group of "family icons" from the time of Prince Neagoe Basarab. The commissioner of the icon was Neagoe's wife Despina Miliţa, native of the ottoman occupied Serbia. Hence the iconographic theme, the Serbian saints Simeon and Sava. Currently displayed at the Romanian National Museum of Arts.
Description: Saint Simeon is depicted as a monk and Saint Sava as a bishop. Kneeling in prayer at their feet is Despina Miliţa in mourning, following the death of her son, Teodosie (an event which dates the icon to 1522-1523). Next to her, the two princesses, Stana and Roxanda, are shown in the same attitude but wearing ceremonial costumes and gold crowns. Stylistically, the icon belongs to 16th century Wallachian painting. The modelling of the faces, the oblong eyes and the angular folds of the costumes recall the mural painting in the cathedral at Curtea de Argeş. - ^
Description: Date: 22 March 7168 (1660); Language: Old Church Slavonic; Scribe: Vasile Corlatescu; Parchment, 48.5 x 67.7 cm; Currently in Vatopedi Monastery library, Mount Athos, Greece.
Content: "[...] Ştefaniţǎ Lupu, Prince of Moldavia, with the blessing of the country's four supreme prelates, namely the Metropolitan of Suceava and the Bishops of the districts of Roman, Rǎdǎuţi, and Huşi, re-dedicates the recently renovated Golia Monastery to Vatopedi. He grants it the villages of Clicicǎuţi and Mileneşti, free of taxes and statute labour. He also exempts the monastery from the tax of 1000 sheep, 1000 beehives, 50 swine, etc. The monks shall mention his name in their services all year round as long as the monastery exists. Signed by fifteen high-ranking officials, members of the Divan of Moldavia." - ^ Description: Date: 7078 (1570); Language: Greek; Parchment, 56 x 39 cm; Currently at Dionysiou Monastery, Sacristy, Mount Athos, Greece.
Content: "The Assembly of Dionysiou Monastery thanks Roxandra, widow of Alexandru Lapusneanu, Prince of Moldavia, for her generosity to Dionysiou Monastery. In 1568, when Sultan Selim confiscated the monastery's property, Roxandra put up the money to redeem the debts, estates, pledges, and the rest of the monastery's movable property. The monks will frequently commemorate both Roxandra and her son, the Voivode Bogdan."
[edit] References
- Iorga Nicolae: "Byzance après Byzance. Continuation de l'"Histoire de la vie byzantine"", Institut d'Etudes Byzantines, Bucharest 1935;
- Chris Hellier "Monasteries of Greece"; Tauris Editions, London 1995;
