Byzantine navy
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This article discusses the naval forces of the Byzantine Empire. Also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire is a modern histiographical term to describe the Roman Empire in later years. Although the Eastern Empire was a direct continuation of the Roman empire begun by Augustus, it developed its own unique culture and identity that in hindsight, appears to be Roman only in name. As such Byzantine is used to separate the historical periods between the Latin-speaking, pagan Roman empire centred at Rome during the Ancient years, from the Greek-speaking Christian Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centred at its capital in Constantinople.
Whilst there is disagreement on when the Byzantine empire actually started, the age of the Empire is conventionally determined by using the founding of Constantinople in 330 AD, until the Fall of Constantinople 1,123 years later. The Byzantine navy was essential to the success of the Byzantine Empire as one of the longest surviving empires in history.
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[edit] Early period
The Byzantine navy, like the Byzantine Empire itself, was a continuation of the earlier Roman Empire model. In 323 AD the Emperor Constantine defeated a fleet of 350 triremes of the Eastern Emperor Licinius with a fleet of 200 liburnians, which were smaller and lighter than Roman triremes. In the early period its organizational structure and technology was similar to that of the Roman Navy. While the Vandal kingdom of Carthage lasted (428-534), the eastern emperors were compelled to attend to their fleet. However, the new threat came from the Arabs. Prompted by early Byzantine naval actions, the Arabs eventually built up a massive fleet and conquered many of the large Mediterranean islands.
[edit] Organisation
Naval themes where organized much the same way as their land bound counterparts, with Turmarchs, Drungaries, Centarchs and so on, for their marines. Their oarsmen on the other hand had captains of ships, confusingly called Centarch, and pilots, called Protocarabi or Heads of ships, of which there were two per vessel. A peculiar feature of the Byzantine navy was the presence of a corps similar to the seaman gunners and gunnery officers of modern navies. These were the siphonarioi, who worked the siphons (aujxaves) used for discharging the Greek fire.
[edit] Macedonian Dynasty
The Byzantine navy reached its highest point under the able sovereigns of the Macedonian dynasty (867-1056), reaching some 34,200 oarsmen and pehaps as much as 8,000 marines in 899. It was divided into the imperial fleet, having some 19,600 oarsmen and 4,000 marines commanded by the Great Drungarios, the first recorded lord high admiral, and the provincial or thematic squadrons, under their strategoi. Of these there were three and a supporting fourth, the Aegean numbering 2,610 oarsmen and 400 marines, the Cibyrhaeotic (Cyprus and Rhodes) at 5,710 oarsmen and 1,000 marines, the Samian with 3,980 oarsmen and 600 marines and finally the Theme of Hellas furnished 2,300 oarsmen with a portion of its 2,000 thematic soldier doubling as marines. The thematic squadrons were maintained permanently for police purposes. The imperial fleet, which was more powerful when in commission than all three, was kept for war.
[edit] The Komnenian period
By the end of the 11th century the principal naval enemies were the Normans from south Italy. However, the navy had been neglected during the eleventh century, and at the beginning of his reign emperor Alexios I Komnenos (1081-1118) was forced to rely on the help of the Venetian fleet against the Normans. Nevertheless, Alexios realised the importance of having his own fleet, and took steps to re-establish the Byzantine fleet. By 1118 Alexios was able to pass on a powerful Byzantine navy to his successor.
From 1118 to 1143 the empire was ruled by John II Komnenos, who concentrated on the army and regular land-based campaigns. This resulted in an embarrassment when John refused to renew the trading priveliges that Alexios had granted to the Venetians; after they had plundered several Byzantine islands in retaliation, John renewed the treaty. Evidently the Byzantine navy at this point was not sufficiently powerful for John to be sure of victory against Venice. John's concentration on land campaigns meant that the Byzantine navy was temporarily neglected.
However, the Byzantine navy experienced a major revival after 1143 under the emperor Manuel I Komnenos, who was determined that Byzantine naval power should be re-established. The Byzantine navy under Manuel (1143-1180) quickly became formidable. Crusade historian William of Tyre was impressed by the Byzantine fleet of this period; during a Byzantine naval expedition against Egypt in 1169, he noted the swift dromons and large horse-transports used by the navy to transport the Byzantine cavalry. This expeditionary fleet comprised over 200 ships, and represented a powerful tool of Byzantine foreign policy. The Egyptians agreed to supply the Byzantines with tribute, an arrangement which echoed the annual tribute they had payed to Constantinople in the days of Justinian, some 600 years before.
[edit] Decline of the Byzantine navy
However, after the demise of the Komnenian dynasty in 1185, the navy deteriorated hopelessly and the emperors were driven to rely on the help of the Venetians, and later the Genoese. After the Fourth Crusade, there was a temporary naval revival under Michael VIII Palaiologos, but this did not last long; the emperors who succeeded Michael wrongly assumed that by relying on the naval strength of their Genoese allies they could completely do without the maintenance of a fleet with its particularly heavy expenditure. The efforts of rebuilding the navy under Andronicus III Palaeologus failed.
[edit] Ships
Literary sources and accounts reveal that there were at least three varieties of dromon. These were, firstly the ousiakon which took its name from one company or ousia of 100 men. This was a two-banked galley with the lower rank rowing only, and the upper rank rowing or disengaging to fight when required. Secondly the slightly larger pamphylos with a crew of between 120-160. Thirdly the dromon proper, which had a crew of two hundred, fifty on the lower bank, and one hundred on the upper bank in two files, together with fifty marines.
A description of some of the ships is given by Anna Comnena:
The emperor knew that the Pisans were skilled in warfare at sea and was afraid to clash with them. Thus he ordered the construction on all the ships of bronze and iron heads of lions and other wild animals of all types, with open mouths and covered in gold leaf, so that their appearance alone was enough to spread fear. The liquid fire that was to attack the enemy would pass through the mouths of these heads, so that it would appear verily that they were vomiting forth flames...
The variety of ships mentioned in the Alexiad by Anna Comnena is most striking: monoremes, biremes, triremes, corsairs, dromons (a generic term for warships), galleys (including one set apart for the use of empresses), merchantmen of heavy tonnage, cargo vessels, horse-transports, skiffs, dinghies, sermones (the exact nature of which eludes us, but they were probably fast, small craft), rowboats, scout-ships, tiny boats for use on river or lake, fire-ships with flame-throwing apparatus for Greek fire and the vessel reserved for the `Second Count' and called by the sailors eveoussaton. The latter may refer to a ship immune from tax (the Latin excusatum) but there is no general agreement on that derivation.
The Byzantine Fire Ships were responsible for saving Constantinople (modern day Istanbul) from Arabs united under the prophet Muhammad in 674 AD. These ships were 100 feet long, about the size of a traditional war galley, to 200 feet long that featured fire catapults and a torch that shot flame across the sea.
[edit] Greek fire
Main article: Greek fire
The term “Greek fire” was not attributed to the concoction until the time of the European Crusades. Some of the original names it was known by include “liquid fire”, “marine fire”, “artificial fire” and “Roman fire”. The latter was most probably due to the fact that the Muslims (against whom the weapon was most commonly used) believed the Byzantines to be Roman rather than Greek. Of course, politically speaking, the Byzantine Empire was a direct continuation of the East Roman Empire and called themselves Rhomaioi, or "Romans".
Greek fire is believed to have been created in the seventh century (673 AD) by a Syrian engineer named Kallinikos (or Callinicus). The weapon was first used by the Byzantine Navy, and the most common method of deployment was to emit the formula through a large bronze tube onto enemy ships. Usually the mixture would be stored in heated, pressurized barrels and projected through the tube by some sort of pump while the operators were sheltered behind large iron shields. The closest modern weapon to it was probably the flamethrower.
The means of its production in the harbour of Galata was kept a state secret, and its components are only roughly guessed or described through secondary sources as Anna Comnena:
“This fire is made by the following arts. From the pines and the certain such evergreen trees inflammable resin is collected. This is rubbed with sulfur and put into tubes of reed, and is blowing by men using it with violent and continuous breath. Then in this manner it meets the fire on the tip and catches light and falls like a fiery whirlwind on the faces of the enemies."
To its effect, the Greek fire must have been rather similar to napalm. Burning fiercely, it could even stay ablaze underwater for a short period.
[edit] Notable events
- 468: The Empire managed to assemble one of the largest fleets ever seen in the Mediterranean, numbering 1,113 ships and 100,000 warriors, to destroy the Vandal kingdom. However, the incompetent imperial commander Basilicscus miserably failed, and some 600 ships were lost. This venture, with an estimated cost of 130,000 pounds of gold, nearly bankrupted the Empire.
- 533: Justinian sends Belisarius with a large fleet of 500 transports, escorted by 92 dromons carrying an army of 15,000 (of which a staggering 1/3 were multi-weaponed cavalry with their horses) to capture Carthage and the Vandal kingdom. It succeeds in the face of superior numbers, demonstrating the power of the Byzantine cataphract cavalry who fought with an assortment of ranged and hand-to-hand weapons.
- 626: Constantinople had to face the dangers of a two-faced attack from the Persians and Avars/Slavs. During the final onslaught on 10 August, the Slav fleet was defeated and their land forces were thrown back with heavy losses and forced to retreat.
- 644: The fleet was able to recapture Alexandria from the Arabs, albeit the success was temporary. In response, the Arabs built their own fleet.
- 655: First major naval battle between Arabs and Byzantines off the Lycian coast. It ended as a complete defeat, 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed.
- 718: Repel of the Second Arab siege of Constantinople.
- 747: The Byzantines destroyed the Arab fleet dispatched from Alexandria.
- 905: Himerius, the Logothete of the Drome, won a victory over the Arab fleet in the Aegean Sea.
- 912: Himerius was defeated by an Arab fleet led by a Greek renegade Leo of Tripoli.
- 960: A Byzantine fleet of 1,000 heavy transports, 308 supply ships, and 2,000 carriers of Greek Fire was sent to occupy Crete.
- 1043: A Byzantine fleet engaged in the final Rus'-Byzantine War.
- 1148: Emperor Manuel I Comnenus prepared to send a fleet of 500 galleys and 1,000 transports, carrying 30,000 men to invade the Kingdom of Sicily.
- 1155: 10 Byzantine ships are sent to help Norman rebels against the Kingdom of Sicily.
- 1169: A large Byzantine fleet of over 200 ships is sent by Manuel I Comnenus to invade Egypt in cooperation with the ruler of the crusader kingdom of Jerusalem.
- 1171: The Megas Doux pursues a Venetian fleet with 150 Byzantine ships.
- 1185: A Byzantine fleet of 70 ships is sent by Isaac II Angelus to recapture Cyprus from Isaac Comnenus
- 1263: A mixed imperial and Genoese fleet of 48 ships is defeated by a smaller Venetian force.
- 1275: Michael VIII Palaeologus sends a fleet of 73 ships to harass the Latin states in Greece.
- 1349: The Emperor sends a fleet of 9 fair-sized ships and about 100 smaller ones against the Genoese, but it is completely destroyed by the Genoese.
- 1453: A mixed Byzantine/Italian fleet of 26 ships defends Constantinople against the Ottoman fleet.
[edit] Reference
"History of the Byzantine State" by G. Ostrogorski
"Byzantium: The Early Centuries" by John Julius Norwich
"Byzantium: The Apogee" by John Julius Norwich
"Byzantium: The Decline and Fall" by John Julius Norwich
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
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