Brent Spar
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Brent Spar or Brent E, was an oil storage and tanker loading buoy in the Brent oilfield, operated by Shell UK. With the completion of a pipeline connection to the oil terminal at Sullom Voe in Shetland, the storage facility had continued in use but was considered to be of no further value as of 1991. Brent Spar became an issue of public concern in 1995, when the British government announced its support for Shell’s application for disposal in deep Atlantic waters (approximately 250 km from the west coast of Scotland, at a depth of around 2.5 km).
Greenpeace organised a worldwide, high-profile media campaign against this plan, including calls for boycotts of Shell service stations. Its activists occupied the Brent Spar for more than three weeks. In the face of public and political opposition in northern Europe (including some physical attacks and an arson attack on a service station in Germany), Shell abandoned its plans to dispose of Brent Spar at sea - whilst continuing to stand by its claim that this was the safest option, both from an environmental and an industrial health and safety perspective. Greenpeace’s own reputation also suffered during the campaign, when it had to acknowledge that sampling errors had led to a substantial over-estimate of the oil remaining in Brent Spar’s storage tanks. Following Shell’s decision to pursue only on-shore disposal options - as favoured by Greenpeace and its supporters - Brent Spar was given temporary moorings in a Norwegian fjord. In January 1998 Shell announced its decision to re-use much of the main steel structure in the construction of a new harbour facilities near Stavanger.
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[edit] Technical information
Brent "E" was a floating oil storage facility constructed in 1976 and moored approximately 2km from the Brent "A" oil rig. It was jointly owned by Shell and Esso, and operated wholly by Shell, which gave them responsibility for decommissioning the structure. The Brent Spar was 147m high and 29m in diameter, and displaced 66,000 tonnes. The draft of the platform was such that manoeuvring in the North Sea south of the Orkney islands was not possible. The storage tank section had a capacity of 50,000 tonnes (300,000 barrels) of crude oil. This section was built from 20mm thick steel plate, reinforced by ribs and cross-braces. It was known that this section had been stressed and damaged on installation. This led to doubts on whether the facility would retain its structural integrity if it was refloated into a horizontal position.
Throughout the decommissioning process, Shell based its decisions on estimates of the quantities of various pollutants, including PCBs, crude oil, heavy metals and scale, which it had calculated based on the operating activities of the platform, and the quantity of metal that would remain in the structure after decommissioning was completed. Scale is a by-product of oil production, and because of the radioactivity found in the rocks from which the oil is extracted, is considered to be low-level radioactive waste. It is dealt with on-shore on a regular basis, by workers wearing breathing masks to prevent inhalation of dust.
[edit] Disposal options
Shell examined a number of options for disposing of the Brent Spar, and took two of these forward for serious consideration.
[edit] On-shore dismantling
The second option considered, this would have involved towing the Brent Spar into a deep-water harbour. The structure would then be decontaminated and the materials used in construction would be reused. Any unusable waste could be disposed of on land. Technically, this option was more complex and presented a greater hazard to the workforce. This option was estimated to cost £41M. There was some concern that the facility would disintegrate in shallow coastal water, having a much more economically and environmentally significant impact.
[edit] Deep sea disposal
The first option involved towing the decommissioned platform into deep water in the North Atlantic, positioning explosives around the waterline, then detonating them, in order to breach the hull and sink the platform. The facility would then fall to the seabed and release its contents over a restricted area. Due to the uncertainty associated with detonating explosives, a number of possible scenarios were envisaged. First, the structure would fall to the seabed in one piece, releasing its contaminants slowly, and affecting the seabed for around 500m "down-current". Second, the structure might disintegrate as it fell through the water column. This would release contaminants in a single burst, and have an effect for 1000m "down current" of the final resting place, although this would last for a shorter time than in the first instance. Third, the structure could fail catastrophically when the explosives detonated, releasing its contaminants into the surface waters. This would have an impact on sea birds and on the fishing industry in that area. The cost of this option was estimated at between £17M and £20M.
Shell proposed that deep sea disposal was the best option for Brent Spar. Shell argued that their decision had been made on sound scientific principles and data. From a point of view of engineering complexity, disposing of the platform at sea was more simple than the on-shore dismantling option. Shell also cited the lower risk to the health and safety of the workforce which the first option presented. Environmentally, Shell considered that sinking would have only a localised impact in a remote deep sea region which had little resource value. It was considered that this option would be acceptable to the public, to the UK government and to regional authorities. Shell acknowledged that sinking the Brent Spar at sea was also the cheaper option.
Having decided on a preferred method of disposal, Shell contracted Fisheries Research Services (FRS) to investigate possible sites for sinking the facility. There were two stipulations to this search: firstly, that the site was within British territorial waters, and secondly, that the site be deep enough that the sunken buoy would present no hazard to shipping. FRS identified three sites, as 20km x 20km squares, which were considered suitable. These were the Maury Channel, the North Feni Ridge and the Rockall Trough.
At these three sites, FRS carried out:
- seabed visualisation surveys using an ROV to confirm the topography in each area
- sediment sample collection using a box core sampler to analysed for heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), oil-related hydrocarbons and radionuclides
- investigations into particle size distribution, and total organic carbon levels of the sediment
- box core sampling to count the numbers of animals living in the sediment of the seabed
- beam trawl sampling to determine the different animals living on the seabed
The North Feni Ridge was found to include a narrow channel. The Rockall Trough area was found to be a gently sloping basin between the Anton Dohrn Seamount and the Wyville-Thomsom Ridge. The Maury Channel area was found to be a flat, gently sloping area. Infaunal communities were found to be high in diversity and low in abundance, characteristic of unimpacted sediments. These communities were thought to have a limited food supply, which is also the norm in deep water communities.
The final conclusions of FRS were that abundance and diversity were greater than had been expected, especially in the North Feni Ridge area, however the limited extent of sampling precluded detailed analysis of data for the entire area. On the basis of the data which FRS gathered, there was little to choose between the three potential disposal areas. Analysis of the North Feni Ridge area may indicate that this area may have been accumulative, but that this would not preclude deep-sea disposal of the platform.
Having received these conclusions, Shell opted for the North Feni Ridge site, and applied to the British government for a licence to dispose of the rig at sea. This was approved in December, 1994.
[edit] Greenpeace involvement
Greenpeace became aware of the plan to sink the Brent Spar at sea on February 16, 1995. The organization had been campaigning against ocean dumping in the North Sea since the early 1980s, using high-seas tactics to physically hinder the dumping of radioactive waste and titanium dioxide, and lobbying for a comprehensive ban on ocean dumping through the OSPAR convention.
Greenpeace objected to the plan to dispose of the Brent Spar at sea on a number of issues:
- That there is a lack of understanding of the deep sea environment, and therefore no way to predict the effects of the proposed dumping on deep sea ecosystems.
- The documents which supported Shell's licence application were "highly conjectural in nature", containing unsubstantiated assumptions, minimal data and extrapolations from unnamed studies.
- That dumping the Brent Spar at sea would create a precedent for dumping other contaminated structures in the sea and would undermine current international agreements. The environmental effects of further dumping would be cumulative.
- Dismantling of the Brent Spar was technically feasible and offshore engineering firms believed they could do it safely and effectively. The necessary facilities were already routinely in use and decommissioning of many other oil installations had already been carried out elsewhere in the world.
- To protect the environment, the principle of minimizing the generation of wastes should be upheld and harmful materials always recycled, treated or contained.
Greenpeace alleged that the scientific arguments for ocean dumping were being used as a way of disguising Shell's primary aim: to cut costs.
[edit] The "battle" of Brent Spar
Four Greenpeace activists first occupied the Brent Spar on April 30. In total, 25 activists, photographers and journalists were involved in this stage of occupation. Interestingly, they chose to cover up the Exxon logos on the platform. At this time, activists collected a sample of the contents of the Brent Spar and sent it for testing to determine the nature of the pollutants which the platform contained. This sample was collected incorrectly, leading to a large overestimate in the contents of the facility. Although Greenpeace quoted Shell's own estimate of the amount of heavy metals and other chemicals on board, they claimed there were more than 5,500 tonnes of oil on the Spar (Shell's estimate: 50 tonnes). For context, the Exxon Valdez oil spill involved around 42,000 tonnes.
Greenpeace mounted an energetic media campaign that influenced public opinion against Shell's preferred option. It disputed Shell's estimates of the contaminants on the Brent Spar, saying that these were much more than initially estimated. On May 9, the German government issued a formal objection to the British government, with respect to the dumping plan. On May 23, after several attempts, Shell obtained legal permission to evict the Greenpeace protesters from the Brent Spar. Towing of the platform to its final position began on July 11. By this time the call for a boycott of Shell products was being heeded across much of continental northern Europe, damaging Shell's profitability as well as brand image. Chancellor Helmut Kohl protested to the British Prime Minister John Major at a G7 conference in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Support from within the oil industry was not unanimous. Although oil production companies supported Shell's position, influential companies in the offshore construction sector stood to make money from onshore dismantling if a precedent could be set, and consequently supported the Greenpeace point of view.
On June 20, Shell had decided that due to falling sales and a drop in share price, their position was no longer tenable, and withdrew their plan to sink the Brent Spar. They released the following statement:
"Shell's position as a major European enterprise has become untenable. The Spar had gained a symbolic significance out of all proportion to its environmental impact. In consequence, Shell companies were faced with increasingly intense public criticism, mostly in Continental northern Europe. Many politicians and ministers were openly hostile and several called for consumer boycotts. There was violence against Shell service stations, accompanied by threats to Shell staff."
In early July, the Norwegian government gave Shell permission to mothball the Brent Spar in Erfjord. It remained there for several years while other options for disposal were considered.
[edit] Aftermath
| Contaminant | Shell Co est. (kg) | DNV audit est. (kg) |
|---|---|---|
| PCBs | trace | 6.5 - 8.0 |
| Hydrocarbons | 50,700 | 75,000 - 100,000 |
| Aluminium | 28,677 | 24,000 - 40,000 |
| Arsenic | 0.3 | 0.0 |
| Bismuth | 29.0 | 0.0 |
| Cadmium | 16.4 | 1.0-3.8 |
| Copper | 13,542.9 | 7,500 - 13,200 |
| Indium | 10.2 | 5.0 - 21.0 |
| Lead | 9.5 | 0.11 |
| Mercury | 0.3 | 0.4 |
| Nickel | 7.4 | 0.9 - 1.5 |
| Silicon | 48.0 | 0.0 |
| Titanium | 8.8 | 0.0 |
| Zinc | 13,811.4 | 5,200 - 8,300 |
| Scale | 30,000 | 7800 - 9400 |
Having moored the Brent Spar in Erfjord, Shell commissioned the independent Norwegian consultancy Det Norske Veritas (DNV) to conduct an audit of Spar's contents and investigate Greenpeace's allegations. Greenpeace admitted that its claims that the Spar contained 5500 tonnes of oil were inaccurate and apologized to Shell on September 5. This pre-empted the publication of DNV's report, which endorsed Shell's initial estimates for many pollutants. Greenpeace noted that its opposition to the dumping had never been solely based on the presence or absence of oil, however, and that opposition to the disposal plan was part of a larger campaign opposing the dumping of all waste into the North Sea.
Shell received over 200 individual suggestions for what could be done with the Brent Spar. One of these came from the Stavanger Port Authority. They were planning a quay extension at Mekjarvik, to provide new Roll-On/Roll-Off ferry facilities. It was hoped that using slices of the Spar's hull would save both money and energy that would otherwise have been spent in new steel construction. The Spar was raised vertically in the water by building a lifting cradle, placed underneath the Spar and connected by cables to jacks on board heavy barges. Jacking the cables upwards raised the Spar so that its hull could be cut into 'rings' and slid onto a barge.
After cleaning, the rings were placed in the sea beside the existing quay at Mekjarvik and filled with ballast. The construction of the quay extension was completed by placing a concrete slab across the rings. The Spar's living quarters and operations module, were removed and scrapped onshore at a Norwegian landfill site.
[edit] Impact of Brent Spar
According to a poll of 1000 adults carried out by Opinion Leader Research on behalf of Greenpeace, as of January 26, 1996, a majority of the British public were aware of the Brent Spar (57%). Of these, 57% were opposed to the dumping of Brent Spar in the Atlantic, and 32% were in favour of it.
Because of their decision to grant a licence for the "at-sea" disposal of the Brent Spar, and because of John Major's support for Shell and their policy, the British Conservative Party were seen as linked with Brent Spar in the public mind, and it is possible that this further undermined the popularity of the party prior to the landslide victory of New Labour in the 1997 general election.
Although Shell had carried out an environmental impact assessment in full accordance with existing legislation, and firmly believed that their actions were in the best interests of the environment, they had severely underestimated strength of public opinion. Shell were particularly criticised for having thought of this as a "Scottish", or "UK" problem, and neglecting to think of the impact which it would have on their image in the wider world. The final cost of the Brent Spar operation to Shell was between £60M and £100M, when loss of sales were considered. Although Shell and the offshore industry consider that Brent Spar did not set a precedent for disposal of facilities in the future, signatory nations of the OSPAR conventions have since agreed that oil facilities should be disposed of onshore, so it is difficult to see how this does not set a precedent. Shell claimed that spending such an amount to protect a small area of remote, low resource value, deep sea was pointless and this money could be much more constructively spent.
The overestimation of the contents of the Brent Spar damaged the credibility of Greenpeace in their wider campaigns. They were criticised in an editorial column in the scientific journal Nature for their lack of interest in facts. Greenpeace moved to distance itself from its "5500 tonnes" claim, after the Brent Spar argument was won, and because of this has been accused of indulging in historical revisionism, after issuing statements such as "In the absence of a full inventory, Greenpeace, during our occupation, attempted to find out what was on the Brent Spar. The estimates resulting from this sampling were in no way central to the campaign...". This allegation has also been levelled at individuals, such as Lord Melchett, executive director of Greenpeace UK, who wrote in New Scientist magazine, "Greenpeace made mistakes too. We allowed ourselves to follow the agenda set by the Department of Trade and Industry, Shell and the media - too often getting into arguments about the potential toxicity of the Spar.".
[edit] Timeline
- 1976 - Brent Spar built and enters service
- September 1991 - Brent Spar ceases operations
- 1991-93 Shell examines options and carries out risk assessment and environmental impact assessment. Decides to sink Brent Spar at the North Feni Ridge.
- Feb 1994 - Independent environmental consultancy, Aberdeen University Research and Industrial Services, endorses choice of deep sea disposal. Shell begins formal consultations with conservation bodies and fishing interests. Draft Abandonment Plan submitted.
- December 1994 - UK government approves plans for sinking.
- April-May 1995 - Greenpeace activists occupy platform to prevent sinking. Greenpeace International organizes boycott of Shell products and services.
- June 15, 1995 - German chancellor Helmut Kohl protests to British Prime Minister John Major at G7 summit.
- June 14 - June 20, 1995 - Protesters in Germany threaten to damage 200 Shell service stations. 50 are subsequently damaged, two fire-bombed and one raked with bullets.
- June 26 - June 30, 1995 - Eleven states call for a moratorium on sea disposal of decommissioned offshore installations at meeting of Oslo and Paris Commissions. Opposed by Britain and Norway.
- July 12, 1995 - Shell UK commissions independent Norwegian consultancy Det Norske Veritas (DNV) to conduct an audit of Spar's contents and investigate Greenpeace allegations.
- September 5, 1995 - Greenpeace admits inaccurate claims that Spar contains 5,550 tonnes of oil and apologizes to Shell.
- October 18, 1995 - DNV present results of their audit, endorsing the original Spar inventory. DNV state that the amount of oil claimed by Greenpeace to be in the Spar was "grossly overestimated".
- January 29, 1998 - Shell announces Brent Spar will be disposed of on shore and used as foundations for a new ferry terminal.
- July 23, 1998 - OSPAR member states announce agreement on onshore disposal of oil facilities in the future.
- February 1999 - BBC 9 O'Clock News screens interview with Conservative environment minister John Selwyn-Gummer in which he accuses Greenpeace campaigners of telling lies and, as a result, causing damage to the whole environmental movement.
- July 10, 1999 - Decommissioning is completed and the first stages of constructing the ferry terminal are started.
- November 25, 1999 - BBC formally apologizes to Greenpeace over screening of Gummer allegations.
[edit] References
- ↑ Anon. (1996). "Structural damage danger for Brent Spar". Chemical Engineer (London) 7: 615-616.
- ↑ The Story. Shell's initial consideration of decommissioning ideas. Retrieved on March 10, 2005.
- ↑ Case study: Brent Spar. Details of the Fisheries Research Services analysis of the 3 possible disposal sites.. Retrieved on March 10, 2005.
- Owen, P. & Rice, T. (1999). Decommissioning of Brent Spar. Spon Press. ISBN 0-419-24090-X.
- ↑ DNV Inventory. Contents of Brent Spar, relative to quantities in the North Sea, as detailed by Det Norske Veritas. Retrieved on March 10, 2005.
- ↑ Woodham, A. (1999). "Dismantling of Brent Spar". Marine Pollution Bulletin 38 (2): 67.
- ↑ Brent Spar Gets Chop. BBC News, World, Europe, Brent Spar Gets Chop. Retrieved on March 10, 2005.
- ↑ Anon. (1999). "Brent Spar Outcry Leaves Shell With A 60m Pound Bill". Professional Engineering 12 (16): 9.
- ↑ Editorial comment (1995). "Brent Spar, broken spur". Nature 375: 708-709.
- ↑ Melchett, P. (23 December, 1995). "Green for Danger". New Scientist 148 (2010): 50-51.
