Battle of Svolder

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Battle of Svolder
The Battle of Svolder, by Otto Sinding
Date September 999 or 1000 Location In Oresund or near Rügen Result Allied victory
Combatants
Norway	Denmark Sweden Jarls of Lade
Commanders
Olaf Tryggvason †	Eirik Hákonarson Olaf the Swede Svein Forkbeard
Strength
11 warships	70+ warships
Casualties
All ships captured	Reportedly heavy
There are no detailed contemporary sources. Information such as the number of ships should be taken with some skepticism.

The Battle of Svolder or Svold^[1] was a naval battle fought somewhere in the western Baltic in September 999 or 1000 between King Olaf Tryggvason of Norway and an alliance of his enemies. The backdrop of the battle is the unification of Norway into one state, long-standing Danish efforts to gain control of the country and the spread of Christianity in Scandinavia.

King Olaf was sailing home after an expedition to Wendland (Pomerania), when he was ambushed by an alliance of Svein Forkbeard, King of Denmark, Olaf Eiríksson, King of Sweden, and Eirik Hákonarson, Jarl of Lade. Olaf had only 11 warships in the battle against a fleet of at least 70. His ships were cleared one by one, last of all the Long Serpent, which Jarl Eirik captured as Olaf threw himself into the sea. After the battle Norway was ruled by the Jarls of Lade as a fief from Denmark and Sweden.

The most important historical sources on the battle, the kings' sagas, were written approximately two centuries after it took place. They cannot be taken at face value as historically accurate but offer an extended literary account describing the battle and its causes in vivid detail. The sagas describe the causes of the battle as Olaf Tryggvason's ill-fated marriage proposal to Sigrid the Haughty and his problematic marriage to Thyri, sister of Svein Forkbeard. As the battle starts Olaf is shown dismissing the Danish and Swedish fleets with ethnic insults and bravado while admitting that Eirik Hákonarson and his men are dangerous because "they are Norwegians like us". The best known episode in the battle is where Olaf's defeat is heralded by the breaking of Einarr Þambarskelfir's bowstring.

In later centuries the saga descriptions of the battle, especially that in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla, have inspired a number of ballads and other works of literature.

[edit] Context

See also: Christianization of Scandinavia

In earliest recorded history Norway was divided into a number of small and sometimes warring petty kingdoms with weak central authority. The rise of Harald Fairhair in the 9th century started the process of unification of the country and consolidation of royal power. The descendants of Harald, and other claimants to the throne, had to face strong regional leaders such as the Jarls of Lade in the north and the rulers of Vingulmark in the east. At the same time the kings of Denmark claimed regions in the south and were eager to acquire Norwegian vassals to increase their influence while the spread of Christianity became an increasingly important political issue in the late 10th century.

Hailed as king in 995, Olaf Tryggvason quickly proceeded to convert Norway to Christianity, using all means at his disposal.

In the 970's Haakon Sigurdsson, Jarl of Lade, became the most powerful man in Norway. At first supported by Harald Bluetooth of Denmark and paying tribute to him the two later fell out over religious matters. Harald had converted to Christianity and was eager to convert Norway while Haakon remained a staunch adherent to paganism. In 995 Haakon was deposed and the young Christian leader Olaf Tryggvason came to the throne.

While rejecting Danish authority, Olaf made it his mission to convert Norway and the Norse colonies in the west as quickly and as completely as possible. Proceeding with threats, torture and executions Olaf broke down pagan resistance and within a few years Norway was, at least nominally, a Christian country. But King Olaf had gained several enemies during his meteoric rise to power. The most prominent were Jarl Eirik, son of Jarl Haakon, and Svein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, both of whom felt that Olaf had deprived them of their share of Norway.

The same interests which clashed in the Battle of Svolder were to continue the struggle for Norway for decades to come with other major engagements including the Battle of Nesjar and the Battle of Stiklestad. The final resolution came in 1035 with the accession of Magnus the Good to the throne of a unified, independent and Christian Norway.^[2]

[edit] Sources

While the battle is described in a number of mediaeval sources, the narrative in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla is the best known and the one which has most influenced modern historical and literary works.

The Battle of Svolder is mentioned in a number of historical sources. The first written work is by Adam of Bremen (ca. 1080), who wrote from a Danish point of view as his source was King Svein II of Denmark. The later Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus made use of and expanded Adam of Bremen's account in his Gesta Danorum (ca. 1200).

In Norway the three synoptic histories, Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium , Historia Norwegie and Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum (ca. 1190), all give a short account of the battle. The Icelandic kings' sagas offer a much more extensive treatment, starting with Oddr Snorrason's Saga of Olaf Tryggvason (ca. 1190). Working from skaldic poetry, oral history, learned European examples and an uninhibited imagination, Oddr constructed an elaborate account of the battle.^[3] This was taken up by the later Icelandic sagas, Fagrskinna and Heimskringla (ca. 1220), both of which add quotations of skaldic verse. Three Icelandic poems from around 1200 also have some historical interest; Nóregs konungatal, Rekstefja and Óláfs drápa Tryggvasonar. The immense Greatest Saga of Olaf Tryggvason (ca. 1300) combines several of the above sources to form the last, longest and least reliable saga account.

Contemporary skaldic poetry which refers to the battle includes a work by Hallfreðr the Troublesome Poet who was in Olaf Tryggvason's service. Hallfreðr was not present at the battle but gathered information on it afterwards for a eulogy on Olaf. On Jarl Eirik's side a number of stanzas are preserved by Halldórr the Unchristian who speaks of the battle as happening "last year" and dwells on the scene of Eirik conquering the Long Serpent. Some verses on the battle are also preserved in Þórðr Kolbeinsson's elegy on Eirik, probably composed around 1015. Finally, Skúli Þórsteinsson fought with Eirik in the battle and spoke of it in verse in his old age.^[4]

While historians value contemporary skaldic poetry highly as the most accurate sources available it must be remembered that the poems are not preserved independently but as quotations in the kings' sagas. After two centuries of oral preservation there is often doubt that a verse is accurately remembered and correctly attributed. Furthermore, skaldic poetry did not primarily aim at giving information but at artistically decorating facts already known to the hearers.^[5] Historians are thus forced to fall back on the less reliable but more detailed accounts of the sagas.

[edit] Events leading up to the battle

Olaf Tryggvason proposes marriage to Sigrid the Haughty, imposing the condition that she must convert to Christianity. When Sigrid rejects this, Olaf strikes her with a glove. She warns him that this might lead to his death.^[6]

Nothing can be gleaned from the contemporary skaldic poems on the causes of the battle. The oldest written source, the account of Adam of Bremen, states that Olaf Tryggvason's Danish wife, Thyri, egged him on to make war on Denmark. When Olaf heard that Svein Forkbeard and Olaf the Swede had formed an alliance he was angered and decided that the time had come for an attack.^[7] Ágrip and Historia Norwegie have a similar account. Thyri was the sister of Svein Forkbeard and when Olaf married her, Svein refused to pay the dowry promised with her. Angered by this, Olaf launched an expedition south to attack Denmark. Too impatient to wait for a fleet to assemble from all of Norway he set sail south with only 11 ships, expecting the rest to follow as summoned. When this hope was not realized, he intended to travel to Wendland (Pomerania) to seek allies. On the way there he was ambushed by Svein and his allies.^[8] These accounts are contradicted by a contemporary verse by Halldórr the Unchristian which states that Olaf Tryggvason was travelling from the south when he came to the battle.^[9]

Olaf offers Queen Thyri a stalk of angelica. She weeps and scolds him for not daring to face up to Svein Forkbeard and retrieve her dowry.^[10]

Oddr Snorrason has an elaborate account on the problems arising from Thyri's marriages. First she was betrothed and married to the Wendish king Bolesław the Brave who received a large dowry for her. She did not want to be his wife and starved herself after their wedding so Bolesław sent her back to Denmark. She then arranged to have herself married to Olaf Tryggvason and succeeded, to the displeasure of her brother Svein. Svein's queen, Sigrid the Haughty, was a staunch opponent of Olaf and egged Svein to make war on him. Svein then conspired with Jarl Sigvaldi and King Olaf of Sweden to lure Olaf Tryggvason into a trap. Olaf Tryggvason travelled to Wendland to collect Thyri's dowry from King Bolesław. While there he heard rumours of a planned ambush but Sigvaldi arrived to tell him that these rumours were false. Believing Sigvaldi, Olaf sent most of his fleet home, as his men were impatient. When he set sail himself he only had a small fleet left and was ambushed by Svolder.^[11]

Fagrskinna and Heimskringla largely follow Oddr's account but simplify it somewhat and diverge from it in some respects. According to Heimskringla, Sigvaldi sailed from Wendland with Olaf with a fleet of Wendish ships and led him into the ambush.

Whether the above details are accurate or not it is clear that Svein, Olaf the Swede and Eirik had ample reason to be opposed to Olaf Tryggvason. Olaf had taken control of Viken in south Norway, an area long under Danish control. Olaf and Svein had also been in England at the same time where Olaf made peace while Svein kept campaigning. Svein was on friendly terms with Olaf the Swede and connected to him by marriage so he was a natural ally. Finally, Jarl Eirik had been driven from his patrimony by Olaf and arguably had his father, Jarl Hakon, to avenge in him.

From the conflicting accounts of the sources, historians have tried to reconstruct the most likely turn of events leading up to the battle. It is probable that Olaf was indeed sailing from Wendland to Norway when he was ambushed though the kings' sagas probably play up the importance of Thyri and her marriages. While it is possible that Olaf was collecting dowry it seems more probable that he was expecting war and trying to gain allies in Wendland, but met with little success. The character of Sigvaldi remains enigmatic though there is evidence from skaldic poetry that he did indeed betray Olaf.^[12]

[edit] Time and location

The late Viking Age DR 66 runestone from Aarhus commemorates a man who "met death when kings fought". The event referred to may be the Battle of Svolder.

All sources which date the battle agree that it took place in the year 1000. The oldest source to date it is the meticulous Íslendingabók, written around 1128, specifying that it took place in the summer. Oddr Snorrason says further that the battle is "memorialized for the fallen men on the Third or Fourth Ides of September",^[13] (10th or 11th September). Mesta states that the battle occurred on September 9th and other sources agree with either of those. Since some mediaeval writers reckoned with the end of the year in September it is possible that the year referred to is in fact the one we know as 999.^[14]

The location of the battle cannot be identified with any certainty. According to Adam of Bremen it took place in Oresund.^[15] Ágrip and Historia Norwegie also place it off Zealand^[16] Theodoricus says it took place "beside the island which is called Svöldr; and it lies near Slavia".^[17] Fagrskinna speaks of "an island off the coast of Vinðland… [t]his island is called Svölðr."^[18] Oddr Snorrason and Heimskringla agree on the island's name but do not specify its location.^[19] A stanza by Skúli Þórsteinsson speaks of "the mouth of Svolder", suggesting that Svolder was originally the name of a river which Norse unfamiliarity with Wendish geography turned into an island.^[20] The Danish Annales Ryenses are unique in placing the battle in the Schlei.^[21] Modern historians are divided, some locating the confrontation near the German island of Rügen while others prefer Oresund.

[edit] Composition of the fleets

The Norse sources are in agreement that Olaf Tryggvason fought against overwhelming odds in the battle. Fagrskinna, for example, says that he had "only a small force" while the sea around him was "carpeted with warships"^[22] The sources which specify the number of warships all agree that Olaf Tryggvason had 11 vessels but they give various numbers for the allied fleets.

Though the sagas agree that Olaf Tryggvason had only 11 ships in the battle, some of them quote a verse by Halldórr the Unchristian saying that Olaf had 71 ships as he sailed from the south. The sagas explain the discrepancy between the two numbers by saying that some of the 71 ships belonged to Jarl Sigvaldi, who deserted Olaf, and others sailed past the trap at Svolder before it was sprung.

The sagas describe three of the ships in Olaf Tryggvason's fleet. According to Heimskringla, the Crane was a large swift-sailing warship with thirty rowers' benches, high in stem and stern.^[28] It was commissioned by King Olaf and used as his flagship for some time.

The second of Olaf's great ships he confiscated from a pagan he had tortured to death for refusing to convert to Christianity. King Olaf "steered it himself, because it was a much larger and finer ship than the Crane. Its stem had a dragon's head on it, and on its stern, a crook shaped like a tail; and both sides of the neck and all the stern were gilded. That ship the king called the Serpent, because when the sail was hoisted it was to look like the wing of a dragon. That was the finest ship in all Norway."^[29]

The Long Serpent was "the best ship ever built in Norway, and the most costly".

Olaf's third flagship, the Long Serpent, was a legendary vessel occurring in several anecdotes in the sagas.

It was constructed as a dragon ship, on the model of the Serpent which the king had taken along from Hálogaland; only it was much larger and more carefully wrought in all respects. He called it the Long Serpent and the other one, the Short Serpent. The Long Serpent had thirty-four compartments. The head and the tail were all gilt. And the gunwales were as high as those on a seagoing ship. This was the best ship ever built in Norway, and the most costly.[30]

The only ship described in the allied fleet is Jarl Eirik's Iron Ram. According to Fagrskinna it was "the biggest of all ships".^[31] Heimskringla gives more detail.

Earl Eirík owned a mighty big ship which he was accustomed to take on his viking expeditions. It had a beak [or ram] on the upper part of the prow, fore and aft, and below that heavy iron plates as broad as the beak itself, which went down to the waterline.[32]

[edit] The leaders assess their opponents

It is unlikely that the saga writers had accurate information on details of the battle, beyond the sparse accounts of the surviving poems. Nevertheless, starting with Oddr Snorrason, they present an elaborate literary account, letting the main participants show their character with words and deeds.

Olaf Tryggvason's ships went past the anchorage of his allied enemies in a long column without order, as no attack was expected. Conveniently placed to observe the fleet, Jarl Eirik and the two kings remark upon the passing vessels. Svein and Olaf are eager to join battle but Eirik is portrayed as more cautious and familiar with the Norwegian forces.

Standing on the isle of Svold the allied leaders survey Olaf Tryggvason's passing fleet.

As progressively larger vessels appear the Danes and Swedes think each one is the Long Serpent and want to rush to attack but Eirik holds them off with informed comments.^[33]

It is not King Olaf on this ship. I know this ship because I have seen it often. It is owned by Erlingr Skjálgsson from Jaðarr, and it is better to attack this ship from the stern. It is manned with such fellows that, should we encounter King Olaf Tryggvason, we will quickly learn that it would be better for us to find a gap in his fleet than to do battle with this longship.[34]

As Eiríkr finally consents to attack, King Svein boasts that he will command the Long Serpent "before the sun sets". Eiríkr makes a remark "so that few men heard him" saying that "with only the Danish army at his disposal, King Sveinn would never command this ship".^[35] As the allies stand out to attack Olaf Tryggvason the point of view moves to the Norwegian fleet and the stage is set for more explicit ethnic insults.

Finally seeing the enemy, Olaf might have run past the ambush by the use of sail and oar to escape, but he refused to flee, and turned to give battle with the eleven ships immediately about him. Seeing the Danish fleet arrayed against him he comments: "The forest goats will not overcome us, for the Danes have the courage of goats. We will not fear that force because the Danes have never carried off the victory if they fought on ships."^[36] Similarly Olaf writes off the Swedes with a reference to their pagan customs.

The Swedes will have an easier and more pleasant time licking out their sacrificial bowls than boarding the Long Serpent in the face of our weapons and succeeding in clearing our ships. I expect that we will not need to fear the horse eaters.[37]

It is only when Olaf sees Eirik Hákonarson's contingent that he thinks he can expect a hard battle because "they are Norwegians like us".^[38] The sagas' emphasis of Eirik's part stands in marked contrast with the Danish accounts recorded by Adam of Bremen and Saxo Grammaticus, in which the battle is portrayed simply as a Danish victory over Norwegians, with no mention of Jarl Eirik or his men.

[edit] The battle is joined

The chaotic nature of a sea battle is shown in Peter Nicolai Arbo's Svolder painting.

See also: Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys

The disposition adopted in the battle was one which is found recurring in many sea-fights of the Middle Ages where a fleet had to fight on the defensive.^[39] Olaf lashed his ships side to side, his own, the Long Serpent, being in the middle of the line, where her bows projected beyond the others. The advantage of this arrangement was that it left all hands free to fight, a barrier could be formed with the oars and yards, and the enemy's chance of making use of his superior numbers to attack on both sides would be, as far as possible, limited. The Long Serpent, being a large ship, was also a high one — another advantage to the defenders. They could rain arrows, javelins and other missiles down on the enemy who would have to shoot upwards to retaliate. Olaf, in fact, turned his eleven ships into a floating fort.

The sagas continue to give all the credit to the Norwegians, laying out an account where all the intelligence of Olaf's enemies, and most of their valour, are to be found in Eirik Hákonarson. The Danes and Swedes rushed at the front of Olaf's line and were repulsed, suffering heavy casualties and loss of ships. Jarl Eirik attacked the flank. He forced his vessel, the Iron Ram, up to the last ship of Olaf's line, cleared it with a fierce attack and then proceeded unto the next. In this way Olaf's ships were carried one by one, till the Long Serpent alone was left. ^[40]

[edit] Einarr Þambarskelfir

Einarr Þambarskelfir tries the king's bow and finds it too weak.

One of the best known episodes from the battle is the account of Einarr Þambarskelfir, later a cunning politician but in the battle of Svolder an archer in King Olaf's fleet. Heimskringla describes his attempt at killing Jarl Eirik and saving the day for Olaf.

Einar shot an arrow at Earl Eirik, which hit the tiller end just above the earl's head so hard that it entered the wood up to the arrow-shaft. The earl looked that way, and asked if they knew who had shot; and at the same moment another arrow flew between his hand and his side, and into the stuffing of the chief's stool, so that the barb stood far out on the other side. Then said the earl to a man called Fin, -- but some say he was of Fin (Laplander) race, and was a superior archer, -- "Shoot that tall man by the mast." Fin shot; and the arrow hit the middle of Einar's bow just at the moment that Einar was drawing it, and the bow was split in two parts. "What is that", cried King Olaf, "that broke with such a noise?" "Norway, king, from thy hands," cried Einar. "No! not quite so much as that," says the king; "take my bow, and shoot," flinging the bow to him. Einar took the bow, and drew it over the head of the arrow. "Too weak, too weak," said he, "for the bow of a mighty king!" and, throwing the bow aside, he took sword and shield, and fought valiantly.[41]

The same story is found in Gesta Danorum though there Einarr is aiming at Svein, rather than Eirik.^[42]

[edit] King Olaf's fall

In the final stage of the battle Eirik and his men board the Long Serpent.

At last the Long Serpent was overpowered and Olaf Tryggvason was defeated. The Danish sources report that when all was lost he committed sucide by throwing himself into the sea, "the end befitting his life", according to Adam of Bremen.^[43] Saxo Grammaticus says that Olaf preferred suicide to falling by enemy hand and so jumped overboard in full armour, as if he would gladly abandon life rather than seeing his foes victorious.^[44] The Norwegian and Icelandic accounts are more complex and more favorable to Olaf. Already in Hallfreðr's memorial poem for his lord, rumours that Olaf escaped death at Svolder are alluded to. The sagas offer a variety of possibilities. Ágrip reports:

But of the fall of King Óláfr nothing was known. It was seen that as the fighting lessened he stood, still alive, on the high-deck astern on the Long Serpent, which had thirty-two rowing places. But when Eiríkr went to the stern of the ship in search of the king, a light flashed before him as though it were lightning, and when the light disappeared, the king himself was gone.[45]

Other sagas present theories that one way or another Olaf made his way to the shore; perhaps by swimming, perhaps by the help of angels but most likely by being rescued by one of the Wendish ships present.^[46] After his escape Olaf supposedly made his way abroad to seek salvation for his soul, perhaps joining a monastery. Mesta offers a series of "sightings" of him in the Holy Land, the last of which takes place in the 1040's.^[47]

King Olaf is one of the same company as Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa and Sebastian of Portugal — the legendary heroic figures in whose death the people would not believe, and whose return was looked for. (See King in the mountain.)

[edit] Aftermath

The map shows the division of Norway after the Battle of Svolder according to Heimskringla. Eirik Hákonarson ruled the purple area as a fief from Svein Forkbeard. The yellow area was held by his half-brother, Svein, as a fief from Olaf the Swede while the red area was under direct control of Svein Forkbeard.

After the Battle of Svolder the victorious leaders split Norway into areas of control. Heimskringla gives the most detailed account of the division, describing it as threefold. Olaf the Swede received four districts in Trondheim as well as Møre, Romsdal and Ranrike. He gave these to Jarl Svein Hákonarson, his son in law, to hold as a vassal. Svein Forkbeard got possession of the Viken district, where Danish influence had long been strong. The rest of Norway was ruled by Eirik Hákonarson as Svein's vassal.^[48] Fagrskinna, in contrast, says that the Swedish part consisted of Oppland and a part of Trondheim.^[49] Other sources are less specific.

The Jarls Eirik and Svein proved to be strong, competent rulers and their reign was a prosperous one. Most sources say that they adopted Christianity but allowed all to do as they pleased in religious matters. This led to a backlash against Christianity in the country so that much of Olaf Tryggvason's missionary work was undone.^[50]

[edit] Legacy

Several reasons combined to make the Battle of Svolder one of the most famous battles of the Viking Age. In Norwegian-Icelandic historiography King Olaf Tryggvason was held in high regard as the man who brought Christianity to the North. His colourful end in a battle against overwhelming odds was thus a naturally attractive narrative. The court poets of the victorious Jarl Eirik also ensured their lord a fair share of the glory. Mesta says:

The battle is acknowledged to have been for many reasons the most famous that was ever fought in Northern lands. For, first there was the noble defence made by King Olaf and his men on board the Long Serpent. No instance is known where men have defended themselves so long and so valiantly against such overwhelming numbers of foes as they had to encounter. Then there was the fierce attack made by Earl Eric and his men, which has been held in wide renown. ... The battle was very famous too, on account of the great slaughter, and the Earl's success in clearing a ship that up to that time was the largest built and the fairest in Norway; of which shipmen said that it would never, while floating on the sea, be won with arms in the face of such heroes as manned it.[51]

This Faroese stamp shows a scene from the Battle of Svolder, inspired by Jens Christian Djurhuus' poem, Ormurin langi.

In Iceland, where the kings' sagas continued to be copied and studied, the battle exercised the imagination of several poets. A 15th century rímur cycle, Svöldrar rímur, chronicles the battle in verse, largely following the account of Oddr Snorrason.^[52] Two more rímur cycles on the same topic were composed in the 18th century, one of which is preserved.^[53] In the 19th century the popular poet Sigurður Breiðfjörð composed yet another rímur cycle on the battle, following the account in Mesta.^[54]

With the 19th century rise of nationalism and romanticism and the growing number of translations of the sagas, interest in the battle of Svolder increased outside of Iceland. Around 1830 the Faroese poet Jens Christian Djurhuus composed a ballad on the battle titled Ormurin langi, following Snorri's account.^[55] The ballad was well received and remains to this day among the most popular and well known Faroese ballads. In 2002, an abridged rock version by the band Týr gained some following abroad.^[56]

In Norway, Johan Nordahl Brun's rousing patriotic play Einar Tambarskjelve, written in 1772, is considered a milestone in Norwegian literature.^[57] Later Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson wrote a well-known short poem, Olav Trygvason, on the fall of the king.^[58] Bjørnson also collaborated with Edward Grieg on an opera on Olaf Tryggvason. The two fell out before the work was finished but much later Ragnar Søderlind took up the task and completed the opera. It premiered in September 2000, 1000 years after the Battle of Svolder. In the scene on the battle, Søderlind incorporated fate motifs from Wagner, Beethoven and Liszt into his own music.^[59]

The battle has also inspired art outside of Scandinavia, including a manga volume by the Japanese artist Ryō Azumi.^[60] The best known English-language work is probably by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. In his 1863 collection of poems, Tales of a Wayside Inn, there is a cycle named The Saga of King Olaf, a large part of which is dedicated to the Battle of Svolder. One verse follows.

Louder the war-horns growl and snarl,

Sharper the dragons bite and sting!

Eric the son of Hakon Jarl

A death-drink salt as the sea

Pledges to thee,

Olaf the King!^[61]

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
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• Baetke, Walter. Christliches Lehngut in der Sagareligion, Das Svoldr-Problem: Zwei Beiträge zur Sagakritik. Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Philologisch-historische Klasse, Band 98 - Heft 6. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. 1951.
• Bjarni Aðalbjarnarson (editor) (1941). Íslenzk fornrit XXVI : Heimskringla I. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag.
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• Naess, Harald S. (1993). A History of Norwegian Literature. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3317-5
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• Saxo Grammaticus (edited by J. Olrik and H. Ræder) (1931). Saxonis Gesta Danorum. Hauniæ: Munksgaard.
• Sephton, J. (translator) (1895). The Saga of King Olaf Tryggwason. London: David Nutt.
• Snorri Sturluson (translated by Lee M. Hollander). (1991). Heimskringla : History of the Kings of Norway. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73061-6
• Snorri Sturluson (translated by Samuel Laing and Rasmus Björn Anderson) (1907). Heimskringla: A History of the Norse Kings. London: Norroena Society.
• Theodoricus monachus (translated and annotated by David and Ian McDougall with an introduction by Peter Foote) (1998). The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings. Viking Society for Northern Research. ISBN 0-903521-40-7

[edit] External links

Wikisource has an original article from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica about:

Swold

• Heimskringla account (Starting from 108. Conspiracy Against King Olaf)
• Mesta account