Balhae

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Balhae
The territory of Balhae.
The territory of Balhae.
Korean name
Hangul: 진, then 발해
Hanja: 振, then 渤海
McCune-Reischauer: Chin, then Parhae
Revised Romanization: Jin, then Balhae
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese: 振, then 渤海
Simplified Chinese: 振, then 渤海
Hanyu Pinyin: Zhèn, then Bóhǎi
Wade-Giles: Chen, then Po-hai
Alternate meaning: Bohai Sea

Balhae, also known as Bohai in Chinese, (698 - 926) was an ancient kingdom occupying parts of Manchuria, Primorsky Krai, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-young, the leader of Goguryeo remnants, established what he considered the successor to Goguryeo. Balhae was conquered by the Khitans in 926.

Contents

[edit] History

History of Korea

Gojoseon, Jin
Proto-Three Kingdoms:
 Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye
 Samhan
Three Kingdoms:
 Goguryeo
  Goguryeo-Sui Wars
 Baekje
 Silla, Gaya
North-South States:
 Unified Silla, Balhae
 Later Three Kingdoms
Goryeo
  Khitan wars
  Mongol invasions
Joseon
 Japanese invasions
 Manchu invasions
 Korean Empire
Japanese Occupation
 Provisional Gov't
Divided Korea
 Korean War
North, South Korea

Timeline
Military history
List of Monarchs
Korea Portal

[edit] Founding

Stele from Balhae at the National Museum of Korea.
Enlarge
Stele from Balhae at the National Museum of Korea.

The earliest known recorded mention of Balhae come from the Book of Tang, which was compiled between 941 to 945. Manchuria and northern Korea were previously the territory of the Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces of Silla and the Tang Dynasty in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River. In the aftermath of the destruction caused by invasion and war, Goguryeo refugees fled to the east or south to Silla.

[edit] Expansion and foreign relations

In the confusion of a Khitan attack against the Tang Dynasty in 696, Goguryeo remnants, led by Geolgeol Jungsang and a Sumo Mohe tribe, led by Geolsa Biwoo, escaped eastward to their homeland. The two leaders died but Dae Jo-young, the son of Geolgeol Jungsang, established the State of Jin, claiming to be successors of Goguryeo. Dae Jo-young established his capital at Dongmu Mountain (東牟山). Since it gained power under protection of the northern nomadic empire of Gokturk, Tang called Dae Joyoung "Prefecture King of Balhae (渤海郡王)" in 713. The Bohai (Balhae) Prefecture (渤海郡), modern Cangzhou in Hebei Province, faced the Bohai Sea (渤海) and was remote from his realm. Although the title was not accompanied by actual possession of the prefecture, "Balhae" was used as the name of the country thereafter. Tang called King Mun the "State King of Balhae" in 762.


The second king Mu, who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the Shandong Peninsula in 732. Later, a compromise was forged between Tang and Balhae, which resumed tributary missions to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Balhae became a buffer zone for the region.

The third king Mun expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. He also established the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 755. During his reign, a trade route with Silla, called Sillado, was established.

By the 8th century, Balhae controlled northern Korea, all of Northeastern Manchuria, the Liaodong peninsula, and what is now Primorsky Krai of Russia. Its strength was such that Silla was forced to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defences along the common border.

[edit] Fall and legacy

By the early 10th century, ethnic differences between the Goguryeo and the Mohe (Malgal) people weakened the state. Eventually, Balhae would succumb to the Khitans, an emerging power in Manchuria which founded the Liao Dynasty. After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom, which was soon followed by the annexation by Liao in 936. Balhae aristocrats were moved to Liaoyang but small fragments of the state remained semi-independent. Some Balhae people, led by the last Crown Prince, fled southward to Goryeo, successor to Unified Silla and Goguryeo. Some descendants of the royal family lived in Korea, changing their family name to Tae (太). Balhae was the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria, although later Korean dynasties would continue to regard themselves as successors of Goguryeo and Balhae.

The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the Jurchen people, who founded the Jin Dynasty. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the Khitans. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven Wuji(勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family". The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae consorts. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo, Khitan and Jurchen. This suggests that the Balhae people still preserved their identity even after the conquest of the kingdom.

[edit] Aftermath

After the fall of Balhae and its last king in 926, the Dongdan kingdom had control over most of Balhae's old territories, but starting from 927, many rebellions were triggered throughout the domains. These rebellions were eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of these, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: Later Balhae, Jung-Ahn Kingdom, and Dae-Won Kingdom. These three kingdoms were able to temporarily chase the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the Shandong Peninsula, but they were all eventually decimated by the Liao Empire.


[edit] Government and culture

The people of Balhae were made up of former Goguryeo elements and of several Tungusic peoples present in Manchuria, of which the Mohe (Malgal) made up the largest element.

Its culture and government was heavily influenced by Tang China. It modeled its system of government upon that of Tang China, to an even greater extent than Silla. The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries, and its capital, Sanggyong, was modeled after Chang'an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty. In addition, Balhae sent many students to Tang China to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese civil service examinations.([1][2])

A dragon head artifact from Balhae at the National Museum of Korea.
Enlarge
A dragon head artifact from Balhae at the National Museum of Korea.

An important source of cultural information on Balhae was discovered at the end of the 20th century at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Zhenxiao.

[edit] Characterization and political interpretation

Controversy rests over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That Balhae was founded by a former general from Goguryeo is undisputed, but some dispute his ethnicity is, due to ambiguous wording in historical sources. No written records from Balhae itself survive.

Koreans regard Balhae as a Korean state, particular from the Joseon Dynasty onwards. The 18th century, during the Joseon Dynasty, was a period in which Korean scholars began a renewed interest in Balhae. The Qing and Joseon dynasties had negotiated and demarcated the Sino-Korean border along the Yalu and Tumen rivers in 1712, and Jang Ji-yeon (1762–1836), journalist, writer of nationalist tracts, and organizer of nationalist societies, published numerous articles arguing that had the Joseon officials considered Balhae part of their territory, they would not be as eager to "give up" lands north of the rivers. Yu Deuk-gong in his eighteenth-century work Parhaego (An investigation of Balhae) argued that Balhae should be included as part of Korean history, and that doing so would justify territorial claims on Manchuria. Korean historian Sin Chae-ho, writing about Gando in the early twentieth century, bemoaned that for centuries, Korean people in their “hearts and eyes considered only the land south of the Yalu as their home” and that “half of our ancestor Tan’gun’s ancient lands have been lost for over nine hundred years.” Sin also criticized Kim Busik, author of the Samguk Sagi, for excluding Balhae from his historical work and claiming that Silla had achieved unification of Korea.[1] Inspired by ideas of Social Darwinism, Sin wrote:

How intimate is the connection between Korea and Manchuria? When the Korean race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is strong and prosperous. When another race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is inferior and recedes. Moreever, when in the possession of another race, if that race is the northern race, then Korea enters that northern race's sphere of power. If an eastern race obtains Manchuria, then Korea enters that race's sphere of power. Alas! This is an iron rule that has not changed for four thousand years.[2]

Neither Silla nor the later Goryeo wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory. [3]

In modern North and South Korea, Balhae is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "North-South Period" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ethnicity ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were mixed, including Mohe, North Korean historians think Balhae ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo stock. The Book of Tang says that Dae Joyeong was of a "changed Goguryeo kind" (高麗別種),[4] and the New Book of Tang states that he is "from the Sumo Mohe of the former realm of Goguryeo."

In the West, Balhae is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. [dubious — see talk page] [5] [6] [7] [8] It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryo. Some scholars believe Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic Malgal from Goguryeo. [9] [10][11] [12] [13] [14]

Like many ancient Korean and Japanese kingdoms, Balhae sometimes paid tribute to China, and a heir who lacks this sanction was called by China 知國務 ("State Affairs Leader"), not king; also, China considered every king simultaneously the Prefect of Huhan Prefecture (忽汗州都督府都督). However, Balhae rulers called themselves emperors and declared their own era names. Chinese historians consider Balhae to be composed of the Balhae ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the Manchus, considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe (Malgal). According to the Book of Jin (金史), the history of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, both the Jurchen and Balhae people originally descended from the seven tribes of the Wuji. After defeating the Khitan Liao Dynasty, the Jurchens proclaimed "The Jurchens and Balhae are from the same family. (女直渤海本同一家) [3] The People's Republic of China continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus. [15]

A monkey warrior statue of Balhae. Courtesy of the National Museum of Korea.
Enlarge
A monkey warrior statue of Balhae. Courtesy of the National Museum of Korea.

The People's Republic of China is accused of limiting Korean archealogists access to historical sites located within Liaoning and Jilin. Starting from 1994, increasing numbers of South Korean tourists began to visit archaeological sites in China and often engaged in nationalistic displays. This was aggravated by a series of tomb robberies and vandalism at several of these archaeological sites between 1995 and 2000, which were widely believed to have been perpetrated by ethnic Koreans. [4]

South Korean archeologist Song Ki-ho, who is a noted professor of Seoul National University and has published several papers criticizing the Chinese government, made several visits to China in the 1990's, 2000, 2003, and 2004, examined several historical sites and museums. However, he found himself restricted by limitations on note-taking and photography and even ejected from several sites by museum employees. [16] [17] [18]

North Korea has restricted independent archaeologists from its historical sites since at least the early 1960's. Foreign scholars have criticized political bias in North Korean historiography, and have accused North Korean scholars of reconstructing or even fabricating historical sites. [5]

Russian archaeologists and scholars, like those from China, think of Balhae as an independent Mohe state, with Central Asian and Chinese influence. [19]

In relations with Japan, Balhae referred to itself as Goguryeo, and Japan welcomed this as a kind of restoration of its former friendly relationship with Goguryeo. [20] [21] Modern Japanese scholars view Balhae as an independent state.

[edit] Sovereigns of Balhae 698-926

# Posthumous name (諡號) Hangul/Hanja Personal name Hangul/Hanja Period of reign Era name (年號)
1 Go/Gāo 고왕 高王 Dae Joyeong/Da Zuorong 대조영 大祚榮 698-718 Cheontong/Tiāntǒng 천통 天統
2 Mu/Wǔ 무왕 武王 Dae Muye/Da Wuyi 대무예 大武藝 718-737 Inan/Rěn’ān 인안 仁安
3 Mun/Wén 문왕 文王 Dae Heummu/Dà Qīnmào 대흠무 大欽茂 737-793 Daeheung/Dàxīng 대흥 大興 (Boryeok 보력 寶曆 774-?)
4 Won-ui/Yuányì (deposed) 원의 元義 Dae Won-ui/Dà Yuányì 대원의 大元義 793-794 none
5 Seong/Chéng 성왕 成王 Dae Hwa-yeo/Dà Yányì 대화여 大華與 794 Jungheung/Zhòngxīng 중흥 中興
6 Gang/Kāng 강왕 康王 Dae Sung-rin/Dà Sōnglín 대숭린 大嵩璘 794-808 Jeongryeok/Zhènglì 정력 正曆
7 Jeong/Dìng 정왕 定王 Dae Won-yu/Dà Yuányú 대원유 大元瑜 808-812 Yeongdeok/Yǒngdé 영덕 永德
8 Hui/Xī 희왕 僖王 Dae Eon-ui/Dà Yányì 대언의 大言義 812-817? Jujak/Zhūqiǎo 주작 朱雀
9 Gan/Jiǎn 간왕 簡王 Dae Myeongchung/Dà Míngzhōng 대명충 大明忠 817?-818? Taesi/Tàishǐ 태시 太始
10 Seon/Xuān 선왕 宣王 Dae Insu/Da Renxiu 대인수 大仁秀 818?-830 Geonheung/Jiànxīng 건흥 建興
11  ? Dae Ijin/Da Yizhen 대이진 大彝震 830-857 Hamhwa/Xiánhé 함화 咸和
12  ? Dae Geonhwang/Dà Qiánhuǎng 대건황 大虔晃 857-871 Geonhwang/Qiánhuǎng 虔晃 건황
13 Gyeong/Jǐng 경왕 景王 Dae Hyeonseok/Dà Xuánxí 대현석 大玄錫 871-895
14  ? Dae Wihae/Dà Wěijiē 대위해 大瑋瑎 895-907?
15 Ae/Āi 애왕 哀王 Dae Inseon/Dà Yīnzhuàn 대인선 大諲譔 907?-926

[edit] Media

Balhae is mentioned in a Korean film called Shadowless Sword, which is about the last prince of Balhae. Also, a Korean drama, coming out in September of 2006, will feature the founder of Balhae himself, Dae Joyeong.

[edit] References and notes

  1. ^ Andre Schmid (2000). "Looking North toward Manchuria". The South Atlantic Quarterly 99 (1): 219-240.
  2. ^ Andre Schmid (1997). "Rediscovering Manchuria: Sin Ch'aeho and the Politics of Territorial History in Korea". The Journal of Asian Studies 56 (1): 30. Sin was criticizing previous generations of Korean historians, who had traced Korean history back to the ancient peoples of the Korean peninsula. Sin believed that by doing so, and regarding "minor peoples" as their ancestors, they were diluting and weakening the Korean people and their history. He believed that the Korean race was in fact mainly descended from northern peoples, such as Buyeo, Goguryeo, and Balhae, and (re)claiming such a heritage would make them strong.
  3. ^ Book of Jin, 金史)
  4. ^ Mark Byington (2004). "The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided".
  5. ^ Leonid A. Petrov (2004). "Restoring the Glorious Past: North Korean Juche Historiography and Goguryeo". The Review of Korean Studies 7 (3): 231-252.
  • Mark Byington (October 7 - 8, 2004). "“A Matter of Territorial Security: Chinese Historiographical Treatment of Koguryo in the Twentieth Century”". International Conference on Nationalism and Textbooks in Asia and Europe, Seoul, The Academy of Korean Studies..

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org../../../b/a/l/Balhae.html"