Anti-gravity

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Anti-gravity is a recurring theme in science fiction, particularly in the context spacecraft propulsion. Often a special "gravity shield" or "anti-gravity force field" cancels the effects of gravity, allowing a spacecraft to accelerate. Science has, as yet, failed to find any such force, and the present laws of physics appear to rule out the possibility of anti-gravity. Nonetheless, some have studied possible methods of achieving such effects.

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[edit] H.G. Wells and cavorite

Newton's Law of Gravitation considered gravity to be a force between two objects, causing attraction in proportion to the objects' mass. Under this interpretation, an object with negative mass would repel ordinary matter, and could be used to produce an anti-gravity effect. Alternatively, depending on the mechanism assumed to underlie the gravitational force, it may seem reasonable to postulate a material that shields against gravity or otherwise interferes with the force. An example of such a material, cavorite, is a major element in H. G. Wells' famous book, The First Men in the Moon, although cavorite isn't consistent with even a Newtonian view of the universe—it causes violations of conservation laws. Neither negative-mass exotic matter nor gravity-screening material have been observed experimentally. While the potential existence of exotic matter is still debated, general relativity presents persuasive arguments against the existence of screening materials.

[edit] Some proposed models of anti-gravity

Einstein's theory of general relativity, published in 1915, supplanted Newton's model of gravity with an entirely different mechanism, one based entirely on the geometry of the universe. Gravity is a force that pulls the 4 or 8 dimensions together.Under this model, gravity in a universe containing only matter with positive mass is purely attractive. No arrangement of ordinary matter can produce an anti-gravity effect. Spacetime geometries corresponding to true anti-gravity in general relativity require negative mass.

Some models of anti-gravity claim to derive from general relativity.

The model of gravity proposed by the theory of general relativity breaks down under extreme conditions (too far inside a black hole, and in the very early life of the universe under the big bang model). The rapid expansion of the early universe (cosmic inflation) has been verified by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) result; however, no satisfactory explanations have been found as of 2006. The galaxy rotation problem is a case where the spiral galaxy rotation observations do not fit well with traditional gravitation theory. Most physicists believe that at extremely high energies, gravity and the other fundamental forces unify, which would allow gravity to be manipulated in ways that are not readily apparent now. Candidate models for this regime are theories of everything, which attempt to model all four forces (example: string theory), and theories of quantum gravity, which attempt to produce a model of gravity that is consistent with quantum mechanics, though not necessarily unified with the other forces.

Some models of anti-gravity claim to be based on quantum gravity models, though the connection of these to mainstream quantum gravity models is often tenuous.

[edit] Conventional effects that mimic anti-gravity effects

  • Magnetic levitation suspends an object against gravity by use of electromagnetic forces. While visually impressive, gravitation itself functions normally in such devices. Critics of various alleged anti-gravity devices often suggest that unusual effects observed around them are due to electromagnetism.
  • A tidal force causes objects to move along diverging paths near a massive body (such as a planet or star), producing effects that seem like repulsion or disruptive forces when observed locally. This is not anti-gravity. In Newtonian mechanics, the tidal force is the effect of the larger object's gravitational force being different at the differing locations of the diverging bodies. In Einsteinian gravity, the tidal force is the effect of the diverging bodies following different paths in the negatively curved spacetime around the larger body.
  • Large amounts of normal matter can be used to produce a gravitational field that compensates for the effects of another gravitational field, though the entire assembly will still be attracted to the source of the larger field. Physicist Robert L. Forward proposed using lumps of degenerate matter to locally compensate for the tidal forces near a neutron star.
  • The accelerating expansion of the universe due to dark energy is an effect that causes a large-scale repulsive force. However, this is not gravitational in nature, and so is not anti-gravity.

[edit] Anti-gravity in the context of non-mainstream physics

[edit] Gravity control propulsion projects

The United States government and aerospace contractors publicly announced ambitious Manhattan project-style goals to crack the anti-gravity problem during the mid-1950s while the atomic airplane was on the drawing board, but by the end of 1966, no more information was flowing into the newspapers and magazines.

The first step towards applying significant financial, industrial, and academic resources to develop anti-gravity theories and materials commenced during the summer of 1948 with the creation of the Gravity Research Foundation by Bostonian investment tycoon, Roger W. Babson. The purpose of the Foundation was to nurture gravitation research for the goal of developing gravity shielding technology that could reduce airplane crashes. It held annual gravitation essay competitions that awarded up to $5,000 and sponsored yearly Gravity Day conferences. The gravity shielding emphasis of the Foundation was removed after the death of Babson in 1967. In 1968, eminent theoretical physicist, Louis Witten, became the Vice President and Director of Science Affairs for the Foundation. Many Foundation essays have been cited and/or published in peer reviewed journals. For example, Robert L. Forward's "Guidelines to Antigravity" received a Second Award from the Gravity Research Foundation 1962 essay competition and was published a year later in the American Journal of Physics. A few of the Foundation essay contest winners became Nobel laureates.

The gravity control propulsion branch of the anti-gravity effort was announced in the New York Herald Tribune and The Miami Herald Tribune during the weeks of the 1955 Thanksgiving Holiday. Their articles were by Ansel Talbert. He indicated Glen L. Martin Company, Baltimore; Convair, San Diego; Bell Aircraft, Buffalo; Sikorsky Division of United Aircraft; Lear, Incorporated, Santa Monica; Clarke Electronics, Palm Springs, CA; Sperry Gyroscope Division, Sperry-Rand Corporation, Great Neck, L.I; and Gluhareff Helicopter and Airplane Corporation, Manhattan Beach, CA had explicitly acknowledged commitments to conducting gravity control propulsion research.

The Gravity Research Foundation had nurtured the birth of a major theoretical physics institute. Talbert’s articles announced the proposal to create the Institute of Pure Physics at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Funds for the Institute had been raised by Agnew H. Bahnson, Jr., one of the Gravity Research Foundation trustees. Bahnson had contacted the winner of the 1953 Gravity Research Foundation essay competition, Bryce DeWitt, to head the Institute (Kaiser, 2000a, p. 592). It was established in 1956 as the Institute of Field Physics under the direction of Bryce and his wife, Cecile DeWitt. Its goal was to increase understanding about gravitation – not the pursuit of anti-gravity.

Another announcement reported by Talbert (1955a, b) was the creation of the Research Institute for Advanced Study (RIAS) by George S. Trimble. He was the vice president for aviation and advance propulsion systems for the Glenn L. Martin Aircraft Company, Baltimore, Maryland. The quest for propulsion through gravity control was vaguely implied in initial RIAS publications (Cook, 2002; Cleaver, 1957a, 1957b). An interview conducted by Mallan (1958, p. 9) indicated one of Trimble’s major reasons for creating RIAS was “the control of the force of gravity itself for propulsion.” Staffing of RIAS was consistent with his goals. Its first recruit was the internationally recognized expert in gravitation, Louis Witten (Bass, 2002).

Trimble’s completion of contractual arrangements between RIAS and Burkhard Heim was the second segment of Talbert’s news about RIAS. Burkhard Heim was the first to claim to have united general relativity with quantum mechanics for interplanetary, force field propulsion. He called his theory the principle of dynamic contrabarie and had presented it to the congressional sessions of the International Astronautical Federation during September, 1952 and 1954 at Stuttgart, Germany, and Innsbruck, Austria, respectively (Weyl, 1957, 1959a,b; Sigma, 1996; Dröscher & Häuser, 2002). The contract had been offered before the completion of his progress report (Heim, 1956) and first publication (Heim, 1959a, b, c, d). Heim’s work had caused considerable excitement. Surveys of physics by Weyl and Watson for prospective gravity control propulsion theories had yielded high marks for Heim.

Within a year of Talbert's series of articles, the General Physics Laboratory of the Aeronautical Research Laboratories (ARL) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, commenced an intense program to coordinate research into gravitational and unified field theories with the hiring of Joshua N. Goldberg. During the following sixteen years, ARL scientists produced 18 technical reports and seventy peer-reviewed journal articles. The notable paper on the Roy Kerr metric by Boyer and Lindquist (1967) was an example of one of the many ARL sponsored articles. Roy Kerr, born and raised in New Zealand, had completed his famous paper on spinning black holes during his transition from ARL to the University of Texas, Austin. Some of the ARL papers were written in collaboration with RIAS, the U.S. Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and the Office of Naval Research. Military support for the general relativity projects was terminated by an act of Congress. The Mansfield Amendment of 1973 restricted Department of Defense spending to only the areas of scientific research with explicit military applications.

For eleven years, one or more gravity control propulsion project articles appeared in Aero Digest, Aeronautics, Aeroplane, Aviation Week, Holiday, Interavia, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Mechanix Illustrated, Missiles and Rockets, and True. Intel’s May 1956 article started a “flood of letters” that caused another Interavia electrogravitics article to be prepared for December. Most writers praised the effort. Stambler (1957), Cleaver (1957a,b), and Weyl (1957, 1959) were among the few who were very critical of it. A few papers evinced American efforts to investigate rumors (Mallan, 1959; Beller, 1961; Radzievskiy, 1964)about Soviet Union anti-gravity projects (e.g., Schwartz, 1958). The last periodical to publish an explicit article about the gravity control propulsion project (G-project) was the January 1966 issue of True, The Man’s Magazine. It contained longer lists of aerospace firms, research institutes, and academic institutions than had been cited in Talbert's series of articles. A notable feature of the G-project articles was the absence of denials, retractions, and reports of failures. The G-projects were a reality that had emerged from secrecy, doubled its size, and had quietly receded from public view over an eleven-year period.

The intense interest in anti-gravity during the middle of the twentieth century contributed to the resurgence of general relativity as a component of physics department curriculum across the country. “Einstein’s elegant theory of gravitation, completed in 1915-1916, had by the 1940s nearly disappeared from the training of American graduate students in physics” (Kaiser, 1998, p. 321). The projects nurtured by the Gravity Research Foundation and its spin-off, the Institute of Field Physics, contributed to the return of general relativity to physics departments (Kaiser, 1999, 2000a,b). Additional stimuli came from the recruitment activities, conferences, peer review journal papers, and support by RIAS and ARL. "However, it should be recognized that, in the United States, the Department of Defense played an essential role in building a strong scientific community without widespread encroachment on academic values" (Goldberg, 1992, p. 100). Anti-gravity dreams had nurtured the growth and return of general relativity.

[edit] Reported experiments

According to the aviation trade publication Interavia, research into "electro-gravitic propulsion" was done in 1956. "In this particular line of research, the weights of some materials have already been cut as much as 30 percent by 'energizing' them. Security prevents disclosure of what precisely is meant by 'energizing' or in which country this work is under way," the magazine reported. A localized gravitic field used as a ponderamotive force has been created.

Gravity control propulsion articles became rare after Missile and Rockets (LaFond, 1960) had reported a breakthrough by Ryan Aeronautical Company. It indicated their experimental achievements allowed the projection of a beam of either attracting or repelling gravity-like force to cause accelerations up to one hundred times the rate of the Earth’s acceleration (g) due to gravity. Accelerating an object at 100 g’s from a standstill would cause it to attain a speed in excess of 219,000 miles per hour within just one second! Similar force field beam projections have been reported by Eugene Podkletnov and Giovanni Modanese (2001).

In 1999, Li and her team appeared in Popular Mechanics, having constructed a working prototype to generate what she describes as "AC Gravity". The device is known as the high temperature superconducting disc. Li acknowledges that to 'release' the device before knowing that it is indeed functional and not an unexplained aberration could cause a situation similar to the cold fusion discoveries. [1]

A "kinemassic field" generator from U.S. Patent 3,626,605 : Method and apparatus for generating a secondary gravitational force field
Enlarge
A "kinemassic field" generator from U.S. Patent 3,626,605 : Method and apparatus for generating a secondary gravitational force field

.

In 2001, the Disclosure Project announced that Anti-Gravity and Zero-point energy were in use by secret government agencies, and had been so for over fifty years. Mark McCandlish, a member of the Disclosure Project, provided a drawing of an alleged product of those secret agencies called the Alien Reproduction Vehicle. It presented a view of large, very high voltage capacitors that functioned like Thomas Townsend Brown's gravitator.

According to British technical reports, the aerospace firms of the American gravity control propulsion project conducted Biefeld-Brown Effect electrogravitic experiments. The Biefeld-Brown effect encompassses two phenomena: electrogravitic and electrokinetic. The former was reported by Thomas Townsend Brown to generate thrust without the reliance on a surrounding medium (e.g., air) by applying high voltages to materials with high dielectric constants. Correlations between variations in thrust and the position of the Moon lead Brown to associating the electrostatic phenomenon with gravity. Thomas Townsend Brown's first article and patent emphasized electrogravitics.

Recent electrogravitic tests in Canada and Japan have been positive. Aviation photographer, Doyle R. Buehler, and Takaaki Musha, member of the Advanced Space Propulsion Investigation Committee under the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences reported the positive results. Buehler's experiments were conducted in 2004 at the Southern Alberta Institute of Technology, in Calgary, Canada. Musha's experiments were conducted at the Honda Corporation Research Institute from the first of February to the first of March of 1996. A second group at Honda under Okamoto replicated Musha's experiments with higher voltages and similar positive results. Musha used a weak field approximation of Einstein's General Relativity Theory to generate a formula to explain electrogravitics. In 1999, analyses by Noriki Iwanaga of Musha's theoretical explanations were judged to be flawed from the standpoint of general relativistic side, but he also found that it would be profitable to apply the Brown's propulsion method for small space vehicles if the Musha's theory was physically valid.

Five years later, a firm theoretical foundation for Brown's electrogravitic effect was put forth by Boyko Ivanov of the Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy, Sofia, Bulgaria. He used classical approaches to Einstein's equations known as the Weyl-Majumdar-Papapetrou field solutions, dating back to 1916, to derive what he called root gravity. Ivanov's initial proofs were released through the Los Alamos National Laboratory archives. They contain descriptions of eight types of experiments that could be performed in the laboratory to detect root gravity. The first one incorporates parallel plate capacitors carrying several hundred thousand volts. His formula for the electrostatic production of root gravity supports reports by Brown, Buehler, and Musha. Invanov's and Musha's formulas are similar. Both are inverse functions of the dielectric thickness and directly proportional to the voltage. Musha (2004) incorporates modulo Z (dielectric atomic number) and international system units (SI) and Ivanov uses the CGS (Gauss) system of units.

[edit] References

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[edit] See also

[edit] External links

[edit] Mainstream links on gravity-related research

[edit] Non-mainstream antigravity

As the effects described by the following links haven't been replicated or published in peer-reviewed journals, they are often derided as pseudoscience. Proponents characteristically complain their models are dismissed out of hand without attempts at replication by the mainstream scientific community and thus have not been disproven.

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