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Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: علي بن أبي طالب) (ca. 599 – January 661 CE) was an early Islamic leader. He is seen by the Sunni Muslims as the fourth and last of the Khulafā-i-Rāshidūn (rightly guided caliphs). Shi'a Muslims see him as the first imam and the first rightful caliph. He was also Muhammad's cousin, and, after marrying Fatima, his son-in-law as well.
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[edit] Birth
Ali was born in Mecca, in the Hejaz region of northern Arabia, sometime around 599 CE (the year is an approximation only).
All Muslim traditions describe him being born inside the Kaaba, the most sacred site in Islam; however, non Muslim contemporary academic historians choose to not mention it. One historian, Simon Ockley, retold it as a "strange" narrration History of the Saracens page 331.
Ali was given an auspicious name, derived from one of 99 Names of God, Al Ali (The Exalted).
[edit] Early life
Ali's father, Abu Talib, was a member of the powerful tribe of the Quraysh, and an uncle to the young Muhammad. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather, Abu Talib took Muhammad into his house. Ali and Muhammad were thus cousins raised as brothers, with Ali in the role of a younger brother, looking up to Muhammad and ready to follow his lead. Ali never worshiped any idol before Muhammad announced his prophethood and when Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation regarding tawheed, a claim that Islamic sources indicate was initially greeted with derision, Ali was one of the first to believe him and profess Islam.
Ali stood firm in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca. In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's flight to Yathrib, or Medina, according to Islamic sources, Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that his cousin could flee in safety. Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping.
[edit] Ali in Medina
The small community of Muslim immigrants in Medina, the Muhajirun, were at first extremely poor. They had no land, no houses, and lived on the charity of the Medinans who had converted to Islam (the Ansar). They hired themselves out for labor and engaged in the raiding of Meccan caravans. Ali shared in all the labor and hardships of the community.
Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 CE, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Banu Umayyed champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. He was publicly praised by Muhammad. After this, he was emboldened to ask for the hand of Fatima Zahra, Muhammad's daughter by Khadija, in marriage. Fatima and Muhammad consented, and the marriage was solemnized two months after the battle [1].
From that moment he became a part of Muhammads Ahl al-Bayt. Further ahead he had two sons with Fatimah, Hassan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Al four where included in the Event of the Cloak
Ali was also prominent on the battlefield of Uhud. He is said to have received seventeen wounds in the battle.
In 9 A.H. (630 CE), Muhammad prepared to lead an expedition against Syria. This was the well-known expedition of Tabuk. He did not want to leave Medina, the capital city, unguarded, and decided to leave Ali behind as his deputy. Ali asked if he was going to be left behind with the women and children [2]. Muhammad is reputed to have said:
"Will you not be pleased that you will be to me like Aaron to Moses? But there will be no prophet after me." [3]
For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his cousin's service, serving in his armies, leading parties of warriors on raids, carrying messages and orders. With the exception of Tabuk, Ali joined all of Muhammad's battles and expeditions. As Muhammad's son-in-law and one of his lieutenants, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community. William Muir describes him thus: "Endowed with a clear intellect, warm in affection, and confiding in friendship, he was from the boyhood devoted heart and soul to the Prophet. Simple, quiet, and unambitious" The Life of Mahomet, p. 250
[edit] The death of Muhammad (632 CE)
Muhammad had been ailing for some time, but seemed to have recovered somewhat. He left his house to take part in prayers at the mosque, then returned to his quarters and died.
Ali had a strong claim to the leadership, both as one of Muhammad's closest assistants and as his cousin and son-in-law. But he was passed over for the leadership. (See Saqifah) At first he refused to swear fealty to Abu Bakr, another prominent Muslim and Muhammad's father-in-law. In this he was followed by a significant portion of Medina's Muslim community, including the Banu Hashims. They were known as the Rafidi, or "Refusers", and later as the Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali.
This is an extremely contentious issue, covered in detail in the Succession to Muhammad article. Muslims ultimately split into sects based on their attitudes towards this issue. The Shi'a believe that Muhammad, in accordance with God's command, designated Ali to succeed him, and that Ali was a victim of worldly intrigue; the Sunni believe that the community made a wise choice in uniting behind Abu Bakr.
Asma bint Umais was first married with Ja'far ibn Abu Talib, Alis brother. When Ja'far died during the battle of Mut'ah, Asma married Abu Bakr. After Abu Bakrs death, she married Ali and moved to his household with her two children, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and Umm Khultum bint Abu Bakr, leading to ibn Abi Bakr becoming Alis son in law. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was tutored by Ali and became one of his great partisians, being held in great honour and respect by Shias.
Sunni and Shi'a also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him, Umar al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them. They argue that Ali confined himself to his home and settled with working with his garden, not taking any military or formal administrative post.
Ali did not aid Abu Bakr during the Ridda wars in any way, but he did gave writen advices to the armies marching to Persia during Umars time, but did join in any of those battles.
[edit] Inheritance
Ali and Fatima, as well as Muhammad's widows, had an additional cause for disaffection with Abu Bakr. Muhammad had acquired various lands and properties in the last years of his life. Those he left behind expected that this property would come to them, according to the inheritance laws proclaimed by Muhammad himself. However, Abu Bakr claimed that he had heard Muhammad say that prophets do not leave an inheritance [4]. Abu Bakr argued that the property had been held by the Prophet in trust for the community, and was rightfully the property of the state -- despite Ali's rejoinder that Muhammad's revelations included accounts of prophetic inheritance (Qur'an 27:16, 21:89). Abu Bakr gave state pensions to Muhammad's widows, but Muhammad's blood relatives, Ali, Fatimah and Ibn Abbas, did not receive even that much.
After Fatima's death, Ali again claimed her inheritance, but was denied with the same argument. The caliphs who followed Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, also refused to return the various properties, whether to Ali or to Muhammad's widows. Shi'a Muslims regard this as yet another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers.
[edit] Succession to the caliphate
In 656 CE, the third caliph Uthman, was murdered in his own house, in Medina, by rebellious Muslim soldiers. Medina, now a large city and the capital of an empire stretching from Africa to Central Asia, fell into chaos. In the crisis, some Muslims turned to Ali, who had been for years a faithful and steady lieutenant of Muhammad and his successors, and urged him to seek the caliphate. Ali at first refused. He is said to have been horrified by the assassination of Uthman, and did not wish to appear to be profiting from the situation[citation needed] . But his supporters persevered, and Ali finally allowed himself to be proclaimed caliph.
- when in after days he obtained the rule of half of the Moslem world, it was rather thrust upon him than sought."
Some opponents at the time claimed that he had connived at the murder of Uthman, or at the very least been negligent in seeking the murderers. However, most current and historical opinion absolves him of any blame. He had sent his two sons to protect Uthman, and it is reported that he was dissapointed that they did not succed in preventing his death. Uthmans wife sent a letter to one of Uthmans relatives, Muawiya I, describing Alis son-in law participiating in the riots and urging Muawiya to avenge his fallen relative.
For a fuller discussion of this and succeeding events, see First Islamic civil war.
[edit] Caliphate
Almost the first act of his caliphate was to put down a rebellion led by Talha and az-Zubayr, two childhood friends and prominent Sahaba of Muhammad, who were urged on by Aisha, one of Muhammad's widow, having "revenge the blood of Uthman" as their cry. However, Mu'awiyah did not aid them. In the view of Shi'as, Aisha was a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. Ali engaged in conversation with Talha and Zubayr, reminding them of their childhood friendship and urging them to end the hotilities, resulting in Talha not going to the front lines and Zubayr leaving the battle scene. However, Aisha was in command and battle started. The rebel army was defeated at the Battle of the Camel, Talha was killed by one of his own troops, Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Uthmans cousin. Someone had followed Zubayr and killed him while praying, and Aisha was captured and escorted with all respect to Medina, where she was given a pension. The death of Talha and Zubayr grieved Ali, as they both where old friends.
Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with companions of the Prophet and trusted aides such as Malik ibn Ashter and Salman the Persian. Ali then transfered his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, Damascus, was held by Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor.
Soon after Ali demanding Mu'awiyah to release his post, he raised an army and marched against Ali, demanding vengeance for the death of Uthman. A prolonged battle took place in July 657 CE in the Battle of Siffin, near the Euphrates. To this point had his son in law, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and his two childhood friends Malik ibn Ashter and Ammar ibn Yasir died, adding to Alis grief.
The battle was turning in favor of Ali when a number of the opposing army, fixing copies of the Qur'an to the points of their spears, exclaimed that "the matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Muslims to shed each other's blood."
At this point, some of the soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue be referred to arbitration. The appointed advocate for Ali became Abu Musa al Asha'ri. Amr ibn al-As, a veteran diplomat, was chosen to act for Mu'awiyah. It is reported that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would be to the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Mu'awiyah, `Amr declared that he also deposed Ali, but invested Mu'awiyah with the caliphate. This decision greatly injured the cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt to Mu'awiya's forces.
[edit] Death
According to tradition, three Muslim zealots (purists later termed Kharijites) had agreed to assassinate Ali, Mu'awiyah and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among the faithful. The assassins sent against Mu'awiyan and `Amr failed; the only assassin who succeeded was the one who attacked Ali.
Ali suffered a mortal head wound the 19th of Ramadan while he was performing morning prayers. The sword that wounded him is said to have been poisoned.
Before Ali died, when offered milk, he is said to have asked if his assasin, Abdur Rahman bin Muljam al Sarimi, had been offered milk as well. Ali further decreed that if he was not to survive, then Bin Muljam should be killed with no more than one stroke, as he had only struck Ali once.
Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan (three days after he was stabbbed) in Kufa in 661 CE.
Muawiya I instituted a practice of invoking curses upon Ali.
- "On his way to Hajj, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas met Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan and his companions mentioned Ali upon which Muawiyah showed disrespect towards Ali, Sa'ad got angry and asked 'why do you say such things?'"Sunan Ibn Maja page 12 Dhikr 'Ali
- Muawiyah appointed Sa'ad as the Governor and said: What prevents you from abusing Abu Turab?" Sahih Muslim 31.5915
Ibn Hajar Asqalani states:
- "Muaweyah issued an order to curse Hadhrath 'Ali. Upon hearing this Sa'd bin Abi Waqqas said "Even if you place a sword over my head and demand that I curse 'Ali, I will refuse to do so". Fath al-Bari Volume 7 page 74, Bab Manaqib 'Ali
Ibn Kathir records a similar hadith in his Al Bidayah wa-Nihayah. This practice contiued through the Umayyad dynasty Sahih Muslim 31.5924 and became so widespread that people where ledd to belive Ali did not pray, utill it was finaly ended by Umar II, whom also returned the land of Fadak to Alis descendants.
A splendid mosque called Mashad Ali was erected near the city at Najaf, the place of his burial (although some believe he is buried at Mazari Sharif in Afghanistan).
[edit] Descendants
Ali had eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children. He had two sons by Fatima, Hassan and Hussein. Hasan is said to have refrained from publicly claiming the caliphate, so as to prevent further bloodshed among Muslims. Mu'awiyah I thus became caliph and established the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs. Hassan is, however, revered by most Shi'a as the second imam; his brother Hussein is reckoned as the third, except by the Shi'a Ismaili, who consider him the second imam.
Ali's descendants by Fatima are known as sharifs, sayyeds, or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayyed/sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendents, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.
Many Muslim notables are descendents of Muhammad. The Hashemite royal families of Jordan and Iraq, the Alaouite royal family of Morocco, and the Aga Khans of the Ismaili community claim direct descent from the Prophet through Ali and Fatima. There are also many humbler sayyeds whose only distinction may be the title in front of their name, or the right to wear a black turban (a sign of Alid descent in some communities).
[edit] Legacy
Ali had a great impact on the history of Islam:
[edit] Muslim view
In the eyes of the later Muslims he was remarkable for learning and wisdom, and there are extant collections of proverbs and verses which bear his name: the Sentences of Ali. The most famous collection of Ali's speeches and letters is the Nahj al-Balāgha meaning "The Peak of Eloquence". A few famous quotes from his works:
- Inability is a disaster; patience is bravery; abstinence is a treasure, self-restraint is a shield; and the best companion is submission to Divine Will.
- Socialize with people in such a manner that when you die, they should weep for you and as long as you live, they should long for your company.
- Greed is a permanent slavery.
- Submission to God's will is the cure of the misery of the heart.
Source: Nahj al-Balāgha (The Peak of Eloquence) [5]
Ali is greatly respected by most Muslims (the Ibadi might be the only dissenters).
[edit] Veneration of Ali
Just as Muslims do not picture God, or Allah, but reference him by his Ninety-nine Names or titles, so Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims with titles of praise and add pious interjections after their names.
All Muslims, Sunni and Shi'a alike, agree that Ali deserves these titles:
- Amīr al-Mu'minīn (The Commander of the Faithful)
- Abu Turab (Father of Dust/Soil)
- Asad-ullāh (Lion of God)
-
- Please note that translation from Arabic to English may change the way the words are interpreted
Many Muslims add the phrase "May Allah be pleased with him" after mentioning the name of a prominent or pious companion of Muhammad. Ali is given an additional pious modifier. When Ali's name is mentioned, along with "May Allah be pleased with him", Shi'a add "Allah has honoured his face", a reference to the Shi'a belief that Ali converted to Islam at such a young age that he never joined in any worship of the traditional Meccan gods, whom the Muslims believe to be idols. His face, they say, was never defiled by prostrations before idols.
Both Shia and Sunnis agree that hating Ali nulifies Islam, and loving him is obligatory.
[edit] Sunni view
Sunnis hold him in high respec as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Four Righteously Guided Caliphs.
[edit] Shia view
See main article: Shia view on Ali ibn Abi Talib
Shia regard him with great respect and insist that he is Muhammads choosen successor, designated by God. Also, Shia concluded that even if that was not the case, Ali should have still been the first Caliph, since he was by all and any standard the one most merited for the task, something shared by some western scholars. Charles Mills, one of the leading historical writer of his time:
- As the chief of the family of Hashem and as the cousin and son-in-law of him whom the Arabians respected …, it is apparently wonderful that Ali was not raised to the Caliphate immediately on the death of Mohammad. To the advantages of his birth and marriage was added the friendship of the Prophet. The son of Abu Talib was one of the first converts to Islamism and Mohammad’s favourite appellation of his was the Aaron of a second Moses. His talents as an orator, and his intrepidity as a warrior, were grateful to a nation in whose judgement courage was virtue and eloquence was wisdom." An history of Mohammedanism p. 89
The Shi'a venerate him as second only to Muhammad. They celebrate the anniversaries of his martyrdom and birth and in their confession of faith (shahada), the Shi'a have a voluntarily reference to Ali. (This can be spoken during the call to prayer, but it is not obligatory either).
Etymological note: Shi'a, in Arabic, means "party of", or "partisans of". Shi'a is actually an abbreviation of Shi'at Ali, meaning "the partisans of Ali [and his descendants]."
[edit] Non Muslim view
While Philip Khuri Hitti remarks:
- Valiant in battle, wise in counsel, eloquent in speech, true to his friends, magnanimous to his foes, he became both the paragon of Muslim nobility and chivalry (futuwah) and the Solomon of Arabic tradition, around whose name poems, proverbs, sermonettes and anecdotes innumerable have clustered.”
Wilferd Madelung writes:
- "In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vicegerents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies." The Succession to Muhammad pp. 309-310
British historian and orientalist Thomas Carlyle calls him
- "noble-minded...full of affection and fiery daring. Something chivalrous in him; brave as a lion; yet with a grace, a truth and affection worthy of Christian knighthood" May 8, 1840.
Gerald de Gaury opines that Ali was to be for ever the paragon of Muslim nobility and chivalry Rulers of Mecca p. 49.
In contrast to this, few others such as L. Caetani in his Annali dell' Islam levels severe criticisms against Ali's personality and policies. Lammens describes Ali as "dull-witted and incapable". Madelung in his Succession provided a detailed critical analysis on these criticisms.
Nahj al-Balagha contains a long letter given to Malik ibn Ashter when he departed to succed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, in which Ali gave thourough instructions on how to establish and uphold a government. The United Nations urged the Arab nations to use that letter as a model. ref
[edit] Academic line
Teachers:
- Muhammad - prophet of Islam
Students:
- Hasan ibn Ali - 2:th Shia Imam
- Husayn ibn Ali - 3:th Shia Imam
- Ibn Abbas
- Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr - his adopted son
| Preceded by Uthman |
Sunni Caliph 656–661 |
Succeeded by Mu'awiyah I |
| Preceded by Muhammad |
Shia Imam 632–661 |
Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali |
[edit] See also
- Family tree of Ali ibn Abu Talib
- List of people born in the Kaaba
- Imam Ali Mosque
- Shiites
- Ismailis
- Fatimids
- Hashemites
- Alawite
- Alevi
- Shia Imams
- Wali
- Succession to Muhammad
- Sahaba
- Misconceptions about The Shia
- Ahl Al-Bayt
- Nahj al Balagha
[edit] External links
- Biography from USC's MSA website
- Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Election of Ali as Caliph
- Sayings of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib The Commander of the Faithfull
- Imam Ali foundation
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib Nahjul Balagha
- shianews.com - "Quranic verses in praise of Imam Ali (AS)"
- shianews.com - "206 sayings of Imam Ali Ibne AbuTalib (AS)"
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