Algonquian languages

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"Algonquian" redirects here. This article is about the language family. For the people, see Algonquian peoples
Algonquian
Algonkian
Geographic
distribution:		 North America
Genetic
classification:		 Algic
 Algonquian
Subdivisions:
Plains Algonquian
Central Algonquian
Pre-contact distribution of Algonquian languages

The Algonquian (also Algonkian) languages are a subfamily of Native American languages that includes most of the languages in the Algic language family (the two Algic languages that are not Algonquian are Wiyot and Yurok of northwestern California). Speakers of Algonquian languages stretch from the east coast of North America all the way to the Rocky Mountains. The proto-language from which all of the languages of the family descend, Proto-Algonquian, was spoken at least 3,000 years ago, though there is still no scholarly consensus as to where this language was spoken.

The Algonquian language family should be carefully distinguished from Algonquin, which is only one language of the family.

Contents

[edit] Family division

This large family of 27 languages can be divided roughly into three major groupings — Central, Plains, and Eastern Algonquian. The languages are listed below along with dialects and subdialects. This classification follows Goddard (1996) and Mithun (1999).

A. Central and Plains

I. Plains
1. Arapahoan
  • Arapaho (also known as Arapahoe or Arapafoe)
  • Besawunena
  • Gros Ventre (also known as Atsina, Aáni, Ahahnelin, Ahe, A'aninin, A'ane, A'ananin)
  • Nawathinehena
  • Haʔanahawunena
2. Blackfoot (also known as Blackfeet)
3. Cheyenne
  • Cheyenne
  • Sutaio (also known as Soʔtaaʔe)
II. Central
4. Cree (also known as Cree-Montagnais or Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi)
Eastern:
  • East Cree (also known as James Bay Cree or Eastern Cree)
  • Naskapi
  • Montagnais (also known as Innu-aimun or Innu)
Western:
  • Atikamekw (also known as Attikamek, Attikamekw, Atikamek or Tête de Boule)
  • Bungee (also known as Bungi, Bungie, Bungay, or Red River Dialect) (mixed language based on Plains Cree and Scottish Gaelic)
  • Eastern Swampy & Moose Cree
  • Western Swampy Cree
  • Woods Cree
  • Plains Cree
  • Michif (also known as Mitchif, Métif, or Métchif) (mixed language based on Plains Cree and French)
5. Fox (also known as Fox-Sauk-Kickapoo or Mesquakie-Sauk-Kickapoo)
6. Menominee (also known as Menomimi)
7. Miami-Illinois
8. Ojibwa (also known as Ojibway, Ojibwe, Chippeway, Ojibwa-Potawatomi, or Ojibwa-Potawatomi-Ottawa)
9. Potawatomi (also known as Ojibwa-Potawatomi)
10. Shawnee

B. Eastern

11. Eastern Abenaki (also known as Abenaki or Abenaki-Penobscot)
  • Penobscot (also known as Old Town or Old Town Penobscot)
  • Caniba
  • Aroosagunticook
  • Pigwacket
12. Western Abenaki (also known as Abnaki, St. Francis, Abenaki, or Abenaki-Penobscot)
13. Etchemin (uncertain - See Note 1)
14. Lenape (also known as Delaware)
  • Munsee
  • Northern Unami
  • Southern Unami
15. Loup A (probably Nipmuck) (uncertain - See Note 1)
16. Loup B (uncertain - See Note 1)
17. Mahican (also known as Mohican)
  • Stockbridge
  • Moravian
18. Maliseet (also known as Maliseet-Passamquoddy or Malecite-Passamquoddy)
19. Massachusett (also known as Natick)
  • North Shore
  • Natick
  • Wampanoag
  • Nauset
  • Cowesit
20. Míkmaq (also known as Micmac, Mi’kmaq, Mi’gmaq, or Mi’kmaw)
21. Mohegan-Pequot
22. Nanticoke (also known as Nanticoke-Conoy)
  • Nanticoke
  • Choptank
  • Piscataway (also known as Conoy)
23. Narragansett
24. Pamlico (also known as Carolina Algonquian, Pamtico, Pampticough, Christianna Algonquian)
25. Powhatan (also known as Virginia Algonquian)
26. Quiripi-Naugatuck-Unquachog
27. Shinnecock (uncertain)

[edit] Notes

  1. Etchemin and Loup were ethnographic terms used inconsistently by French colonists and missionaries. There is some debate whether distinct groups could ever have been identified with those names.

    Etchemin is only known from a list of numbers from people living between the St. John and Kennebec Rivers recorded in 1609 by Marc Lescarbot. The numbers in this list share features in common with different Algonquian languages from Massachusetts to New Brunswick, but as a set do not match any other known Algonquian language. Certain intriguiguing similarities between the Etchimin list and Wampanoag might suggest that languages closely related to Wampanoag might have been spoken as far north as the coast of Maine in the precontact period.

The name Etchemin has also been applied to other material from what many scholars of Algonquian ethnography and linguistics believe to be Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, or Eastern Abenaki.

Some of the attested Loup vocabulary can be identified with different eastern Algonquian communities, including the Mahican, Maliseet, Passamaquoddy and other groups. Loup A and Loup B refer to two vocabulary lists which cannot be conclusively identified with another known community. Loup A is most likely Nipmuck, and is also somewhat similar to the handful of words attested for Agawam. Loup B seems like a composite of different dialects. It is closest to Mahican and Western Abenaki. They also may represent unknown tribes or bands, or may have been interethnic trade pidgins of some kind. Documentary evidence for Loup B is very thin (14 pages); the documentary evidence for Loup A is much more extensive (124 pages), being documented in a manuscript dictionary from the French missionary period. See Uncertain/Extinct Algonquian Languages.

[edit] Genetic and areal relationships

It is important to note that only Eastern Algonquian is a true genetic subgrouping. The Plains Algonquian and the Central Algonquian groups are not genetic groupings but rather areal groupings. This means that Blackfoot is no more closely related to Cheyenne than it is to Menominee. However, these areal groups often do have certain shared linguistic features, but the features in question are attributed to language contact. While Paul Proulx recently argued that this traditional view is incorrect, and that Central Algonquian (in which he includes the Plains Algonquian languages) is a genetic subgroup, with Eastern Algonquian now being seen as several different subgroups, this point of view has failed to gain acceptance by any other specialists in the Algonquian languages.

Instead, the commonly-accepted subgrouping scheme is that proposed by Ives Goddard (1994); the essence of this proposal is that Proto-Algonquian originated to the west, perhaps in the Plateau region of Idaho and Oregon, and then moved east, dropping off subgroups as it went along. By this scenario, Blackfoot was the first language to branch off, which coincides well with its position as the most divergent language of Algonquian. In west-to-east order, the subsequent branchings were Arapaho-Gros Ventre, Cree-Montagnais, Menominee, Cheyenne, then the core Great Lakes languages (Ojibwe-Potawatomi, Shawnee, Sauk-Fox-Kickapoo, and Miami-Illinois), then finally, Proto-Eastern Algonquian. This historical reconstruction accords best with the observed levels of divergence within the family, whereby the most divergent languages are found furthest west (since they constitute the earliest branchings), and the shallowest subgroupings are found furthest to the east (Eastern Algonquian, and arguably Core Central). Goddard also points out that there is clear evidence for pre-historical contact between Eastern Algonquian and Cree-Montagnais as well as between Cheyenne and Arapaho-Gros Ventre, and that there has long been especially extensive back-and-forth influence between Cree and Ojibwe.

Algonquian is sometimes said to have included the extinct Beothuk language of Newfoundland, although evidence is scarce and poorly recorded, and the claim is mainly based on geographic proximity. Etchimin and the pre-colonial language of the Lumbees may also have been Algonquian languages, but in both cases documentary evidence is at best very weak. There is no documentary evidence whatsoever of an aboriginal Lumbee language.

[edit] Grammatical features

The Algonquian language family is renowned for its complex polysynthetic morphology and sophisticated verb system. Statements that take many words to say in English can be expressed with a single "word". Ex: (Menominee) enae:ni:hae:w "He is heard by higher powers" or (Plains Cree) kāstāhikoyahk "it frightens us". Languages in this family typically mark at least two distinct third persons, so that speakers can keep track of central characters in narrative. These languages have been famously studied in the structuralist tradition by Leonard Bloomfield and Edward Sapir among others. Many of these languages are extremely endangered today, while others have died completely.

For information on the peoples speaking Algonquian languages, see Algonquian peoples.

[edit] Vocabulary

See the lists of words in the Algonquian languages and the list of words of Algonquian origin at Wiktionary, the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project.

Loan words

Main article: List of English words of Algonquian origin

Because Algonquian languages were some of the first that Europeans came in contact with in North America, the language family has given many words to English. Many eastern and midwestern U.S. states have names of Algonquian origin (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, etc.), as do many cities: Milwaukee, Chicago, et al. The capital of Canada is named after an Algonquian nation - the Odawa. For a more detailed treatment of geographical names in three Algonquian languages see the external link to the book by Trumbull.

[edit] Bibliography

  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Goddard, Ives. 1994. The West-to-East Cline in Algonquian Dialectology. In William Cowan, ed., Papers of the 25th Algonquian Conference 187-211. Ottawa: Carleton University.
  • Grimes, Barbara F. (Ed.). (2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world, (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9. Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/, accessed on Mar. 3, 2005.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Proulx, Paul (2003). "The Evidence on Algonquian Genetic Grouping: A Matter of Relative Chronology." Anthropological Linguistics 45:201-25.

[edit] External links

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