User:AlexD/.geography

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Geography (from the Greek words Ge (γη) or Gaea (γαια), both meaning "Earth", and graphein (γραφειν) meaning "to describe" or "to write".) is the study of the natural and built environments of the Earth. Geography's emphasis is on the spatial distribution of features, life and phenomenas on the earth, as well as the interaction of humans with their environment (natural and built). Geography does not just addresses the question of where, but also why phenomena occur in particular places.

	Mere place names are not geography. To know by heart a whole gazeteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this... to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influence upon man. In a word, geography is a science, a thing not of mere names, but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.
	— William Hughes (King's College, 1863)

1 Introduction
2 History of geography
3 Philosophy of Geography
4 Branches of Geography
5 Fundamental Concepts
6 Geographic techniques
7 Selected list of notable geographers
8 See also
9 External links

[edit] Introduction

Map of the Earth

Traditional geography and geographers have been viewed as the same as cartography and the study of place names. Although, many geographers are trained in topography and cartography this is not their main preoccupation, but rather the spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes and feature as well as the interaction of humans and their environment are. ^[1] As space and place affects a variety of topics, including economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.

Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The later examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water and landforms and produced and interact. ^[2] As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is environmental geography. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans. ^[3]

[edit] History of geography

See main article: History of geography

Christian map of the world, with Jerusalem as the centre

The roots of geography can be traced to Greeks as the first known culture to actively explore geography as a science and philosophy and gave an insight into the size and nature of the Earth. With Aristotle being the first to show that the world was round and Eratosthenes being the first to calculate the circumfrence of the Earth. ^{[citation needed]} The extensive mapping by the Romans as they explored new lands provided a high level of information for Ptolemy to construct atlases and divide the world into 360 degrees with longitudes and latitudes. ^{[citation needed]}

During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world. ^[4] Scholars such as Idrisi (produced detailed maps), Ibn Batutta, and Ibn Khaldun providing detailed accounts of their Hajj. Further, Islamic scholars translated and inteperated the earlier works of the Romans and Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose. ^[5]

The Age of discovery during the 16th and 17th centuries where many new lands were discovered and accounts by explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo and James Cook , revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations ^[6].

The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 18th century with the foundations of the Société de Géographie in 1821, the Royal Geographical Society in 1830, Russian Geographical Society in 1845 and the National Geographic Society in1888. The influence of Immanuel Kant, Alexander von Humbolt, Carl Ritter and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a major turning point in geography from a philosophy to an academic subject.

Over the past two centuries the advancements in technology such as computers, has led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portofilio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, sociology and demographics have also grown greatly especially as a result of Earth System Science that seeks to understand the world in an Hostilic view.

[edit] Philosophy of Geography

Definition of Geography Science or Social Science?

[edit] Branches of Geography

[edit] Physical geography

Physical geography (or physiogeography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical features of the Earth, its lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere).

Physical geography v • d • e

	Biogeography · Climatology & paleoclimatology · Coastal/Marine studies · Geodesy · Geomorphology · Glaciology · Hydrology & Hydrography · Landscape ecology · Limnology · Oceanography · Palaeogeography · Pedology · Quaternary Studies

[edit] Human geography

Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see physical geography), it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and environmental geography is emerging as a link between the two.

Human geography

v • d • e



	Sub-Fields	Cultural geography · Development geography · Economic geography · Historical geography · Language geography · Marketing geography · Health geography · Military geography · Political geography · Population geography · Religion geography · Social geography · Strategic geography · Time geography · Urban geography
	Approaches	Behavioral geography · Cultural Theory · Feminist geography · Marxism · Modernism (Structuralism · Semiotics) · Postmodernism (Post-structuralism · Deconstruction)

[edit] Environmental Geography

Environmental geography is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment.

Environmental geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Furthermore, as human relationship with the environment has change as a result of globalisation and technological change a new approach was needed to understand the changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include disaster management, environmental management, sustainability and political ecology.

[edit] Geomatics

Geomatics is a branch of geography that has emerged since the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid 1950s. Geomatics involves the use of traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography and their application to computers. Geomatics has become a widespread field with many other disciplines using techniques such as GIS and remote sensing. Geomatics has also lead to a revitalisation of some geography departments especially in Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s.

DEM model

Geomatics encompasses a large area of fields involved with spatial analysis, such as.

Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other sub disciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.
Geographic information systems (GIS) deals with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other sub disciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography; nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software.
Remote sensing is a umbrella term for applications that measure an object without being in contact with it. For example a satellite taking photographs of the Earth. Most remote sensing equipment relies on the use of the laws of radiation to measure objects on Earth. Remote sensing includes radar, acoustics and aerial photography.
GPS is a satellite navigation system that provides accurate information on longitude, latitude and altitude. GPS is routinely used for surveying, or measuring rates of movements of large objects.

[edit] Regional Geography

Regional geography is a branch of geography that studies the regions of all sizes across the Earth. It has a prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions.

Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach to study in geographical sciences (similar to quantitative or critical geographies). It was later criticised for its descriptiveness and the lack of theory (regional geography as an empirical approach of geographical sciences). Massive criticism was levelled against this approach in the fifties and during the quantitative revolution.

In today geographical sciences (and geosciences) there are regionally oriented sub disciplines such as regional economic geography or regional geomorphology. Regional geography is thought as study of the major regions of the world, notably the continents but also specific regions such as South East Asia or Western Europe

[edit] Fundamental Concepts

Space
Place
Landscape
Built Environment
Natural Environment
Human-Environmental interactions
Spatial Analysis

[edit] Geographic techniques

Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia.

Geographers use a wide array of techniques to analysis their data and to test their hypothoses. The techniques range from quantitative with the use of geostatistics and probability, qualitative with the use of ethnography and textural analysis and surveyance and cartography using map skills. Another, fundamental technique that the geographer uses is that of fieldwork. Fieldwork is the cornerstone of most geographical research and is when the researcher goes out and engages with the object/ subject that they are researching and can vary from measuring the velocity of a river or examining how changes in the carbon cycle are related to global warming to questionning people about their preceptions of the city and examining the patterns of trade in a globalising economy.

With advances in computer technology, the analytical and spatial data management tools available to geographers, including Geographic Information Systems and spatial data analysis, are now allowing geographers for more rigorious, quantitative analysis of spatial phenomena. The increasing use of palaeoenvironmental reconstruction and dating techniques is also becoming prevellant in geography.

[edit] Quantitative Methods

"Geostatistics" deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the application of statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields including: hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidimeology. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, and non-parametric statistical tests, and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on Geographic Information Systems, particularly for the interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points.

Correlation and Correlation co-efficient including non-parametric statistics Transfer functions Measuring distributions Spatial analysis Significance ANOVA Regression analysis Measures of central tendency, dispersal and asymmetry

[edit] Qualitative Methods

Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographical; research techniques, are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques also used in anthropology and sociology. Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data

Interviews and focus groups Questionnaires and surveys Archival and documentary reserach Preformance research Enthography Action research (participant observation) Textural analysis

[edit] Surveying and Cartography

[edit] Field Work

[edit] Environmental Reconstruction and Laboratory Work

[edit] Selected list of notable geographers

Main article: List of geographers

The Geographer by Johannes Vermeer

Eratosthenes (276BC - 194BC) - calculated the size of the Earth
Ptolemy (c.90–c.168) - compiled greek and roman knwoledge into the book Geographia
Alexander Von Humboldt (1769–1859) - published the Kosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography. Founder of modern geography
Carl Ritter (1779-1859) - Occupied the first chair of geography at Berlin University, founder of modern geography
William Morris Davis (1850-1934) - father of american geography and developer of the cycle of erosion
Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918) - founder of the French school of geopolitics and wrote the principles of human geography
Walter Christaller (1893-1969) - human geographer and inventor of Central Place Theory
David Harvey (1935-) - Marxist geographer and author on theories on space and urban geography.
Arnold Henry Guyot (1807-1884) - noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understaning in glacier motion espoecially fast ice flow
Nigel Thrift (1949-) - originator of non-representational theory
Michael Frank Goodchild (1944-) - prominant GIS scholar and winniner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003