Ahura Mazda
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Ahura Mazda is the Avestan language name for an exalted divinity of ancient proto-Indo-Iranian religion that was subsequently declared by Zarathustra (Zoroaster) to be the one uncreated creator of all (God).
Ahura Mazda is 'Auramazda' in Old Persian, 'Hourmazd' or 'Hormizd' in Middle Persian and 'Aramazd' in the Armenian and Parthian languages. New Persian language usage varies, but 'Hourmazd', 'Hormuzd' and 'Ormazd' are common transliterations.
The Zoroastrian faith is described by its adherents as Mazdayasna, the worship of Mazda. In Zoroastrian tradition, to worship a lesser divinity is to worship Ahura Mazda, since all the divinities are but a manifestation of the Creator.
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[edit] Nomenclature
Ahura denotes the class of the 'right' divinities (as opposed to the daevas, the 'wrong' divinities). The term existed in Proto-Indo-Iranian times, but probably had a slightly different meaning. (See: Ahura for details).
Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflect Proto-Iranian *Mazdāh. It is generally taken to be the proper name of the deity, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European *mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning "placing (dʰeh1) one's mind (mn̩-s)", hence "wise".
In the Gathas (Gāθās), the hymns thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the two halves of the name are not necessarily used together, or are used interchangeably, or are used in reverse order. However, in later texts of the Avesta, both Ahura and Mazda are integral parts of the name Ahura Mazda, which were conjoined as Ahuramazda in western Iran. In Old Persian the name had the form Auramazdāh.
[edit] Perceived origin
Although Ahura Mazda is accepted to be the conceptual equivalent of a proto-Indo-Iranian divinity, the details are a matter of speculation and debate. Scholarly consensus identifies a connection to the prototypical *vouruna and *mitra, but whether Ahura Mazda is one of these two, or both together, or even a superior of the two has not been conclusively established.
One view (Kuiper) is that the proto-Indo-Iranian divinity is the nameless "Father Ahura", that is, Varuna of the Rigveda. In this view, Zoroastrian mazda is the equivalent of the Vedic medhira, described in Rigveda 8.6.10 as the "(revealed) insight into the cosmic order" that Varuna grants his devotees. Kuiper also suggested that Ahura Mazda could also be an Iranian development of the dvandvah expression *mitra-*vouruna, with *mitra being the otherwise nameless 'Lord' (Ahura) and *vouruna being mazda/medhira as noted above. In this constellation, Ahura Mazda is then a compound divinity in which the favorable characteristics of *mitra negate the unfavorable qualities of *vouruna.
In another view (Boyce, Schlerath, et al), Ahura Mazda is seen as the Ahura par excellence, superior to both *vouruna and *mitra. In a development of this view (Boyce, 2001), the dvandvah expression *mitra-*vouruna is none other than the archaic 'Mithra-Baga' of the Avesta. But while in the Vedas Bhaga is a minor divinity in its own right, in proto-Indo-Iranian times this was but one aspect of *vouruna's concept and in Greater Iran continued to be a cult title for *vouruna and eventually replaced it (Boyce, 2001:243-244). Boyce also notes that on Persepolis fortification tablet #337, Ahura Mazda is distinct from both Mithra and the Baga (Boyce, 1983:685).
[edit] In Zoroaster's revelation
In both the ancient religions as well as in Zoroaster's doctrine, Ahura Mazda is the Creator (Avestan: Dadvāh or Dātār, middle Persian: Dādār). However, Zoroaster gave Ahura Mazda an entirely new dimension by characterizing the Creator as the one uncreated God (Yasna 30.3, 45.2). "No satisfactory evidence has yet been adduced to show that, before Zoroaster, the concept of a supreme god existed among the Iranians" (Boyce, 2001:243.n18)
Central to Zoroaster's perception of Ahura Mazda is the concept of asha (Vedic rta), literally "truth", and in the extended sense, the equitable law of the universe, which governed the life of Zoroaster's people, the nomadic herdsmen of the Central Asian steppes (Boyce, 1975:1ff). For these, asha was the course of everything observable, the motion of the planets and astral bodies, the progression of the seasons, the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset. All physical creation (geti) was thus a product of - and ran according to - a master plan, inherent to Ahura Mazda, and violations of the order (druj) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda.
This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with the good-versus-evil battle evident in western religions, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept is more subtle and nuanced, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or 'uncreation', evident as natural decay (Avestan: nasu) that opposes creation; or more literally 'the Lie' of Yasna 31.1 (that opposes truth, righteousness).
In Zoroaster's perception of Ahura Mazda's role as the one uncreated Creator of all (Yasna 44.7), the Creator is then not also the creator of 'druj', for as anti-creation, the druj are not created (or not creatable, and thus - like Ahura Mazda - uncreated). "All" is therefore the "supreme benevolent providence" (Yasna 43.11), and Ahura Mazda as the benevolent Creator of all is consequently the Creator of only the good (Yasna 31.4). In Zoroaster's revelation, Ahura Mazda will ultimately triumph (Yasna 48.1), but cannot (or will not) control the druj in the here and now. As such, Zoroaster did not perceive Ahura Mazda to be omnipotent. Zoroaster did not hypostasize either good or evil.
Throughout the Gathas Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions, for it is only through "good thoughts, good words, good deeds" that order can be maintained, and in Zoroaster's revelation indeed the purpose of mankind to assist in maintaining the order. In Yasna 45.9, Ahura Mazda "has left to men's wills" to choose between doing good (that is, good thoughts, good words and good deeds) and doing evil (bad thoughts, bad words and bad deeds). This concept of a free will is perhaps Zoroaster's greatest contribution to religious philosophy.
[edit] In Zurvanite Zoroastrianism
- Main article: Zurvanism
In Zurvanism, which developed as a cult within the greater Zoroastrian church, Ahura Mazda was not the transcendental God, but one of two equal-but-opposite divinities under the supremacy of Zurvan, 'Time'. This belief, which from a Mazdaen point of view is an apostasy, rests on an interpretation of Yasna 30.3, that makes Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu twin brothers that had co-existed for all Time.
Although Zurvanism was officially supported during the Sassanid era (226–651), no traces of it remain beyond the 10th century. Accounts of typically Zurvanite beliefs were the first traces of Zoroastrianism to reach the west, which misled European scholars to conclude that Zoroastrianism was a monist faith.
[edit] In present-day Zoroastrianism
In 1884, Martin Haug proposed a new interpretation of Yasna 30.3 that provided an escape from (what was considered to be) the dualism implicit in the Gathas. According to Haug's interpretation, the "Twin spirits" of 30.3 were Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu, the former being the 'Destructive Emanation' of Ahura Mazda and the latter being His 'Creative Emanation' (see Amesha Spenta for details on the relationship).
In effect, the Angra Mainyu versus Spenta Mainyu theory was simply a rediscovery of the precepts of Zurvanism, with the difference that Angra Mainyu was now not Ahura Mazda's equal, but an emanation of Him. Haug also developed the idea further, interpreting the concept of a free will of Yasna 45.9 as an accommodation to explain where Angra Mainyu came from since Ahura Mazda created only good. The free will, so Haug, made it possible for Angra Mainyu to choose to be evil.
There is no trace of such philosophy in Zoroastrian tradition (Boyce, 1983:685), but Haug's interpretation was gratefully accepted by the Parsis of Bombay since it provided a defence against Christian missionaries who were attacking the Zoroastrians for the dualism inherent to the idea of (substantiated) Evil that was as uncreated as God was. Notwithstanding the oversight that Zoroastrianism, as an eastern religion, did not hypostatize evil as western religions did, Haug's ideas were subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating the theories. Haug's ideas were so popular that they are now almost universally accepted as doctrine.
[edit] In West-Iranian Iconography
From the reign of Cyrus the Great down to Darius III, it was apparently customary for an empty chariot drawn by white horses to accompany the Persian army. According to Herodotus, who first described the practice, this chariot was sacred to "Zeus" who was presumably believed to position himself at the head of the army. (Ahura Mazda was frequently named Zeus by the Greeks; Aristotle refers to Zeus/Oromasdes being opposed by Hades/Aremainius).
The earliest reference to the use of an image to accompany devotion to Ahura Mazda is from "the 39th year of the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon" (c. 365 BCE) in which a Satrap of Lydia raised a statue (according to the Greek commentator) to "Zeus" the Lawgiver.
The worship of Ahura Mazda with accompanying images is known to have occurred during the Parthian era (250 BCE–226 CE), but by the beginning of the Sassanid period (226–651), the custom appears to have fallen out of favor. A few images from Sassanid times that depict "Ohrmazd" reveal a male figure wearing a high crown.
[edit] In other religions
In Manichaeism, the name Ohrmazd Bay ("god Ahura Mazda") was used for the primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā, the "original man" through whose fall the original Light became tainted with dark matter.
In Sogdian Buddhism, Xwrmztʔ (Sogdian was written without a consistent representation of vowels) was the name used for the Buddhist ruler-deity Śakra. Via contacts with Turkic-speaking peoples like the Uighurs, this Sogdian name came to the Mongols, who still name this deity Qormusta Tengri; Qormusta (or Qormusda) is now a popular enough deity to appear in many contexts that are not explicitly Buddhist.
[edit] Trivia
In the DC Comics book Wonder Woman Ahura Mazda is married to the Amazon Nu'Bia. In the comic the demon Ahriman murdered Ahura Mazda, and carved his heart from his body. Nu'Bia returns to earth in search of Ahriman, hoping that she can retrieve the heart and revive her lover.
[edit] Bibliography
- Boyce, Mary (1975). History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. I, The early period. Leiden: Brill.
- Boyce, Mary (1982). History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. II, Under the Achamenians. Leiden: Brill.
- Boyce, Mary. (1983). "Ahura Mazda". Encyclopaedia Iranica 1: 684–687. Cosa Mesa: Mazda Pub.
- Boyce, Mary. (2001). "Mithra the King and Varuna the Master". Festschrift für Helmut Humbach zum 80.: 239–257. Trier: WWT.
- Humbach, Helmut (1991). The Gathas of Zarathushtra and the other Old Avestan texts. Heidelberg: Winter.
- Kuiper, Bernardus Franciscus Jacobus. (1983). "Ahura". Encyclopaedia Iranica 1: 682–683. Cosa Mesa: Mazda Pub.
- Schlerath, Bernfried. (1983). "Ahurani". Encyclopaedia Iranica 1: 683–684. Cosa Mesa: Mazda Pub.
[edit] See also
- The Gathas, the most sacred texts of the Avesta
- Zoroastrianism, the religion founded by Zoroaster
- Yazatas, the divinities of Zoroastrianism
