Adultism

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Adultism is a predisposition towards adults, which some see as biased against children, youth, and all young people who aren't addressed or viewed as adults. Adultism is popularly used to describe any discrimination against young people, and is distinguished from ageism, which is simply prejudice on the grounds of age; not specifically against youth.

Contents

[edit] Etymology and usage

[edit] Coinage

The word adultism was first cited in psychology literature in the late 1970s [1]. Co-Counseling used it in the late 1980s to describe "the oppression of and discrimination against people who are young" [2]. Since then the term has come to describe any mistreatment or silencing of children and/or youth [3].

In 1996 a youth advocacy organization [4] explained that, "Young people are systemically mistreated and disrespected by society, with adults as the agents of the oppression. The basis of young people's oppression is disrespect. Manifestations of the oppression include: systematic invalidation, denial of voice or respectful attention, physical abuse, lack of information, misinformation, denial of any power, economic dependency, lack of rights, and any combination of the above." This definition is now used widely by youth-serving organizations and education institutions seeking to counter the effects of adultism. Another major national youth service organization [5] explains adultism, stating that most adults do not do this out of caprice or malice, but out of the belief that they are better able, through experience, and mental and physical maturity, to make decisions for young people. The Child Welfare League of America addresses adultism as, "an adult practice of forming certain beliefs about young people and practicing certain behaviors toward them because of societal views, usually negative, that are based on their age. Adultism happens when this prejudice is combined with the ability of adults to exert control over the lives of young people. When adults practice adultism, young people are viewed as objects instead of resources. The end result is that young people become disempowered and disenfranchised." [6]

Adultism is recognized in education circles, as a popular magazine recently asserted that, "Adultism refers to "behaviors and attitudes that are based on the assumption that adults are better than young people, and entitled to act upon them without their agreement."[7] A national media organization promotes the notion that "adultism is the foundation for all forms of oppression," due to the commonality of every person's having experienced said discrimination[8]. However, that belief does not have wide acceptance. A multi-university course from Canada and the UK defines adultism as, "discrimination by adults of children and young people as a consequence of the prejudiced attitudes and assumptions they may hold about them which translate into behaviours and actions"[9]. Similiarly, a University of Michigan researcher has defined adultism as, "all the behaviors and attitudes that flow from the assumption that adults are better than young people, and are entitled to act upon young people in many ways without their agreement."[10]

Similarly, Lewis Lapham, an editor writing in a popular magazine, wrote that, adultism "...is characterized by "disrespect towards the intelligence, judgment, emotional life, leadership, or physical being of young people." [11]

Illustrating the commonality of this term, local youth-serving organizations increasingly address adultism. A program in Oakland, California, defines adultism addressed through their work as "prejudice against and dehumanization of children and youth, where adults think and act superior to children and youth. Adultism hinders the development of youth, in particular, their self-esteem and self-worth, ability to form positive relationships with caring adults, or even see adults as allies."[12] This definition parallels a list of traits from a statewide youth services organization in Texas.

[edit] Similar terms

Similar terms such as adult privilege and adultarchy have been proposed as alternatives which are more morphologically parallel. Some activists alternatively call adultism "youthism," equating it to sexism and heterosexism[13]. The dilemma inherent in this term is present in other activist circles, where "youthism" is reportedly used as to indicate, "one form of ageism which describes people who hold beliefs or take actions advocating unfavourable balance of power or resources toward the 'younger' generations."[14]

Many prominent organizations[15][16] (and articles on Wikipedia) address discrimination against youth as ageism, which is any form of discrimination against anyone due to their age, whatever it may be. This term is countered by charges of ephebiphobia, which is the extreme fear of youth. However, both of these perspectives are increasingly being acknowledged as either precursors for or extensions of adultism, discouraging exclusivity in terminology.

[edit] Classification of adultism

One expert has identified multiple forms of adultism[17], and a typology has been established which includes internalized adultism, institutionalized adultism, cultural adultism, and other forms.

[edit] Internalized Adultism

Barry Checkoway of the University of Michigan School of Social Work asserts that internalized adultism causes youth to "question their own legitimacy, doubt their ability to make a difference..." and perpetuate a "culture of silence" among young people[18]. "Adultism convinces us as children that children don't really count," reports an investigative study, and it "becomes extremely important to us [children] to have the approval of adults and be "in good' with them, even if it means betraying our fellow children. This aspect of internalized adultism leads to such phenomena as tattling on our siblings or being the "teacher's pet," to name just two examples."[19] Other examples of internalized adultism include many forms of violence imposed upon children and youth by adults who are reliving the violence they faced as young people; they include corporal punishment, sexual abuse, verbal abuse, and community incidents that include store policies prohibiting youth from visiting shops without adults, and police, teachers, or parents chasing young people from areas without fair reason. [20]

[edit] Institutional Adultism

Institutional adultism may be apparent in any instance of systemic bias, where formalized limitations or demands are placed on people simply because of their young age. Policies, laws, rules, organizational structures, and systematic procedures each serve as mechanisms to leverage, perpetuate, and instill adultism throughout society. These limitations are often reinforced through physical force or police actions, and are often seen as double-standards[21].

This treatment is increasingly seen as a form of gerontocracy, with more than one popular commentator willing to say as much and, in turn, challenge these assumptions.[22], [23]

[edit] Cultural Adultism

Cultural adultism is a much more ambiguous, yet much more prevalent, form of discrimination or intolerance towards youth. Any restriction or explotation of people because of their young age, as opposed to their ability, comprehension, or capacity, may be said to be adultist. These restrictions are often attributed to "better judgment", the "wisdom of age", or other popular age-related euphemism are afforded to adults simply because of their age. A parenting magazine editor comments that, "Most of the time people talk differently to kids than to adults, and often they act differently, too."[25] This summarizes cultural adultism. For examples see:

[edit] Results

[edit] Social stratification

Discrmination against age is increasingly recognized as a form of bigotry in social and cultural settings around the world. An increasingly number of social institutions are acknowledging the positions of children and youth as an oppressed minority group. Where adults perpetuated mass media myths about youth from the 1970s through the 1990s for the purpose of commercial gain[26], many youth are currently rallying against said adultism through community organizing and advocacy[27].

Research that has been compiled from two sources (a Cornell University nation-wide study, and a Harvard University study on youth) has shown that social stratification between age groups causes stereotyping and generalization; for instance, the media-perpetuated myth that all adolescents are equally immature, violent and rebellious. Advocates of the concept of adultism contend that this has led to growing number of youth, academics, researchers, and other adults rallying against adultism and ageism, such as organizing education programs, protesting statements, and creating organizations devoted to publicizing the concept and addressing it.

Simaltaneously, research shows that young people who struggle against adultism within community organizations have a high rate of impact upon said agencies, as well as their peers, the adults who work with them, and the larger community to which the organization belongs[28]

[edit] Cultural responses

An early social response to adultism took the form of the children's rights movement, led by young people who struck against being exploited for their labor. Numerous popular outlets have been employed to strike out against adultism since then, particularly music and movies. Additionally, many youth-led social change efforts have inherently responded to adultism, particularly those associated with youth activism and student activism, each of which in their own respects have struggled with the effects of institutionalized and cultural adultism.

[edit] Academic developments

A growing number of governmental, academic, and educational institutions around the globe have created policy, conducted studies, and created publications that respond to many of the insinuations and implications of adultism. Much of popular researcher Margaret Mead's work can be said to be a response to adultism. Current researchers whose work analyzes the effects of adultism include sociologist Mike Males and critical theorist Henry Giroux, among others.

[edit] International discourse

Adultism may be remarkable for its broad global implications. Currently, organizations responding to the negative effects of adultism include the United Nations, which has conducted a great deal of research[29] in addition to recognizing the need to counter adultism through policy and programs. The CRC has particular Articles (5 and 12) which are specifically commited to combating adultism. Human Rights Watch is another international organization which has done the same [30].

[edit] References

  1. ^ Adultism by J. Flasher in Adolescence
  2. ^ Re-Evaluation Counseling website
  3. ^ Freechild.org on Adultism
  4. ^ Understanding Adultism Jenny Sazama (1996).
  5. ^ Youth Service America
  6. ^ "Building Positive Youth and Adult Partnerships" by the National Foster Youth Advisory Council of the Child Welfare League of America (n.d.)
  7. ^ School Mediator Newsletter
  8. ^ American Pictures
  9. ^ "Child Welfare Beyond Borders: Session 3.4 Social justice framework and other discourses"
  10. ^ Checkoway, B. Adults as Allies (1998) WK Kellogg Foundation.
  11. ^ "School Bells", by Lewis Lapham, in Harpers Magazine, August 2000, page 7-9.
  12. ^ Youth Together Glossary
  13. ^ Youth Liberation: An Interview With Brian Dominick on Znet
  14. ^ Kelly, B. "'Youthism' and Ageism in Our Movement?" Next Left Notes (2006).
  15. ^ Thread from National Youth Rights Association Online Forums re: Ageism vs. Adultism
  16. ^ Alex Koroknay-Palicz's blog
  17. ^ Get The Word Out! Jenny Sazama (2004).
  18. ^ Adults as Allies (1998) WK Kellogg Foundation.
  19. ^ Cult Awareness and Information Center
  20. ^ Understanding adultism: A key to developing positive youth-adult relationships. by John Bell
  21. ^ Males, M. "Framing Youth: 10 Myths about the Next Generation. (1999) "Courts have explicitly ruled that policy-makers may impose adult responsibilities and punishments on individual youths as if they were adults at the same time laws and policies abrogate adolescents’ rights en masse as if they were children."
  22. ^ Monitor Breakfast with James Carville and Stanley Greenberg "This is not class warfare, this is generational warfare. This administration and old wealthy people have declared war on young people. That is the real war that is going on here. And that is the war we've got to talk about." - James Carville
  23. ^ Gatto, J.T. (2002) The Underground History of American Education "Children allowed to take responsibility and given a serious part in the larger world are always superior to those merely permitted to play and be passive. At the age of twelve, Admiral Farragut got his first command." Institutions perpetuating adultism range across an average community, including the fudiciary, legal, educational, communal, religious, and governmental sectors. For examples see: <li id="_note-23">'''[[#_ref-23|^]]''' Institionalized discrimination is also viewed as [[structural violence]]. See Kelly, P. "Fighting for Hope" (1984) for specific evidence of instutional adultism in healthcare, identified as structural violence. "A third of the 2,000 million people in the developing countries are starving or suffering from malnutrition. Twenty-five per cent of their children die before their fifth birthday... Less than 10 per cent of the 15 million children who died this year had been vaccinated against the six most common and dangerous children's diseases. Vaccinating every child costs £3 per child. But not doing so costs us five million lives a year. These are classic examples of '''structural violence'''."</li> <li id="_note-24">'''[[#_ref-24|^]]''' [http://www.ru.org/83wright.html Treating children as equals.] Wright, J. New Renaissance Magazine (2001)."</li> <li id="_note-25">'''[[#_ref-25|^]]''' Giroux, H. "The Abandoned Generation: Democracy Beyond the Culture of Fear" (2003).</li> <li id="_note-26">'''[[#_ref-26|^]]''' Movement Strategy Center. [http://www.movementstrategy.org/pdfs/MSMC.pdf "Making Space - Making Change: Profiles of Youth-Led and Youth-Driven Organizations"] (2004).</li> <li id="_note-27">'''[[#_ref-27|^]]''' Zeldin, S, Kusgen-McDaniel, A, & Topitzes, D. [http://www.theinnovationcenter.org/pdfs/Youth_in_Decision_Making_Report.pdf "Youth In Decision-Making: A Study on The Impacts of Youth on Adults and Organizations"] (2001).</li> <li id="_note-28">'''[[#_ref-28|^]]''' [http://www.unicef-icdc.org/cgi-bin/unicef/Lunga.sql?ProductID=384 The Evolving Capacities of the Child] UNICEF. (2005)</li> <li id="_note-29">'''[[#_ref-29|^]]''' [http://hrw.org/reports/2005/us1005/6.htm The Difference between Youth and Adults] HRW online.</li></ol></ref>

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